Education and Social Justice

Introduction

What is the significance of physical education to teacher educators (PETEs)? Do the PETEs affect learners in a significant way that is in line with their education? Is there a need for social justice in education, and how does it benefit learners and teacher educators? What are some of the sociocultural issues affecting learners and teacher educators in schools? Hill et al. (2018) makes it evident that these are the most vital questions that are arguable when a debate on the significant of physical education teacher educators (PETEs) poses and there comes the need to train pre-service teachers (PSTs) regarding equality, socio-cultural perspectives and issues, as well as critical pedagogy (Azzarito et al., 2017). Moreover, the author notes that there is substantive PETE literature, as well as physical education that purpose to advocate for learners to develop critical consciousness, engage in multiple perspectives, and also engage in activities that enhance democracy, social justice, as well as equity. In accordance with the provisions of Bell (2016), he points out that in the education sector, there is always the quest to enhance social justice, which is notably complex, owing to the differences in the levels of understandings of various concepts, as well as the relevance of context whilst relating to any conceptual understanding. Hill et al. (2018) noted that Blackmore (2013) described the concept of social justice as “nebulous” or rather, an ill-defined term that is progressive in nature and bases its factuality on a robust notion of democracy. He noted that whatever is done in classrooms whilst referring to education for the enhancement of social justice, and also the tangible outcomes of a social-justice oriented education is regarded as unclear. According to Breunig (2011), they make it clear that the more people are seen invoking the concept of social justice, the less clear its meaning is perceived to be, yet it should be regarded as to be having a great meaning to all. These authors noted that when an opinion refers to almost everything, it fails to have its critical meaning, as its detailed perception cannot be derived. This is common when the opinion has a clearly significant political dimension. Do private, faith, as well as academically selective schools offer much superiority to state, secular, as well as all-abilities schools? What were the differences between various types of schools in academic attainment, and to what extent were they accounted for through controlling relevant confounders? Moreover, were school sector differences greater by the end of compulsory schooling at the age of 16? in further education of A- levels, or during adulthood? Sullivan et al. (2018) points out that these questions are highly debated for. He noted that advocates in various private schooling purpose to attribute the success of these schools to the fact that in a competitive, and also a market-based system, where they must respond to various parental demands for them to survive. According to Abdulkadiroğlu et al. (2014), the perception of the success and achievement in the private sector influences the policy of education internationally, with various reforms having been designed, with the aim of stimulating a quasi-market that is within the state-school sector. However, there are arguments that are in favor of faith schools, which relate to the “parental choice agenda,” yet there is a distinctive argument that dates back to Coleman, which notes that the community that is inherent in catholic schools often allow the maintenance of higher academic, as well as disciplinary standards. Sullivan et al. (2018) note that academic advocates pose the argument that selective schools promote a high academic standards, and also provide a suitable education, which establish brighter children that cannot afford private education. Finally, Atkinson et al. (2007), in togetherness with Burgess et al. (2014) come into an agreement that faith schools are beneficial for the learner’s educational attainment, and in precision, there is a distinctive advantage that can be claimed for Catholic schools. However, it is evident that faith schools can be more socially selective, as compared to non-faith schools, and as such, there is no clarity whether there is a significant benefit that is above and beyond the effect of the school selectivity.

The debate on the manner in which educational research is reformed in the light of criticism aids in illustrating the complex nature of various accusations. Moreover, it serves in clarifying the polarization of perceptions that relate to the fundamental or vital nature of the educational research, as well as its role in informing practice. Creswell (2014) argues that educational practice needs to be informed by research that illustrates this whilst referring to the medicine model, and much like Hills et al. (2018) believed that educators should have significant skills on physical education in enhancing effective education for learners. On the other hand, according to Sullivan et al. (2018) they believe that various private schooling purpose to contribute to the success of a child’s education, owing to the fact that they are competitive, and also a market-based system, where they must respond to various parental demands for them to survive. Cliff (2012) is concerned with the recommendations provided such as owing to the practical nature of educational research, causal mechanism are often difficult to develop, and as such, research cannot be generalize easily and also, practice should not purpose of draw directly on conclusions that are made by educational researchers. In scholar’s view, research may not inform the concept of practice, but he believes that it plays a significant role, which may purpose to enlighten educators. Fernández-Balboa (2017) believes that in as a result, there would be an exacerbation of the criticism held, owing to the fact that educational research does not provide the scientific background for practice. Overall, it is evident that research is significantly laden with assumptions, which affect the view of whatever the purpose of the educational research is and whatever purpose it is bound to serve accurately. Notably, the philosophical, as well as the conceptual approach that that researcher takes affects the research. The differences in assumptions that researchers make and the manner in which educational research is detailed leads to criticisms in various fields of research. Notably, some educational researchers may worry about delving into the research assumption, based on the fear that their research may often be questioned. However, Sullivan et al. (2018) note that a researcher should not be quick on resorting to defend that their research may bring forth valued assumptions or policies (Chilisa, 2011).

Summary of the articles

The study conducted by Sullivan et al. (2018) purposes to question whether private, selective, and even faith schools, based in England and Wales, precisely in the 1980s aimed at providing academic advantage to learners, in both a longer term and short term. In this regard, this study used longitudinal data, derived from the 1970 British cohort research study. The authors examined the significant academic outcomes, especially in compulsory schools, and also further education. They also examined the highest level of qualification that was gained by age 42. Based on the findings of the study, it was evident that there are school sector differences that are significantly and substantially attenuated through initiating control, for prior pupil characteristics. However, there is also a residual impact of private, grammar, as well as secondary modern schooling, which remains, whilst considering a short term and a longer term that controls for both school, as well as pupil characteristics. In considering faith schools, however, it is evident that apparent advantage is only restricted to a shorter terms, especially once the pupil characteristics have been controlled. Overall, a unique feature of the analysis adopted by the authors is that they controlled the individual upbringing faith and this is significant, especially in reducing what could instead be regarded as a distinctive advantage of the catholic school.

On the other hand, based on the study conducted by Hill et al. (2018), they noted that physical education, as well as physical education teacher education have a significant literature that enforces the need for students to develop significant and critical consciousness, multiple perspectives, appreciate, and also engage in activities that can enhance social justice. In analysis the sociocultural perspectives, this study notes that there should be a critical reflection on beliefs, biography, values, and knowledge, as well as a development of an agency sense, in order to enhance and also enact change, which has since time immemorial, been recognized as a vital and integral part in the enhancement of PETE knowledge base. In addition, this study makes it clear that there are differences in the manner in which social justice is conceptualized, and also enacted. This is owing to the fact that social justice is heavily aligned with significant and also critical and post theories, in which case, taking effective action for justice, central power, as well as democracy, is found in the humanist beliefs. This is most evident in student-centeredness, as well as equality and it has as well been co-opted through neoliberal forces, which purpose to promote the concept of individual responsibility. Whereas lack of consensus does not pose a problem, it is evident that diverse definitions might purpose to contribute significantly and thus bring forth a confusion that may lead to uncertainties over what, and also, the effective manner that can be used in teaching social justice. The purpose of the study conducted by Hill et al. (2018) was to map significant variations in definitions, as well as conceptualization of sociocultural issues, as well as social justice amongst PETEs, as well as physical education and sport pedagogy (PESP) educators, in order to work towards enhancing a great certainty on concepts relating to social justice. In the PETE and also the PESP faculty, this study used 72 participants in North America, Australasia, as well as Europe and engaged them in a detailed interview, where, they were asked the define the concept of social justice, as well as sociocultural issues. Notably, additional information regarding the social identity of the participants were collected. The authors used a contact comparative method in the analysis of the definitions they provided, and thus, mapped various concepts regarding the theoretical framework of critical, ‘post’ approaches, humanist, as well as neoliberal to social justice. The findings of the study noted that there are various understandings regarding sociocultural issues, as well as the concept of social justice. Most commonly, it is evident that some participants in this study articulated the importance of humanist approach to social justice through encouraging pre-service teachers (PST) to be knowledgeable on the equality of opportunity that related to gender, racism, and/or sexuality. On the other hand, less prevalent, yet strongly noted by the individuals who conceptualized the concept of social justice in the terms provided, it is also evident that there was great significance in taking action on critical reflection, democracy, as well as empowerment. In this regard, terms such as diversity and equality that were framed in the neoliberal, as well as humanist discourses were commonly used in the US, whilst critical pedagogy, as well as alignment with critical, and also ‘post’ theories were prevalent in New Zealand, and also in Australia. The conclusion of this study noted that there are differences that exist in the manner in which social justice is conceptualized, especially in PETE. Whilst this can be an attribute towards the local issues influence, it also reflects the intellectual tools like humanism/critical theory, which are available in problematizing social issues. Moreover, there are a range of concepts that are non-critical that are found to raise issues, in which PSTs cannot access the tools, necessary for enacting social justice or tackling sociocultural issues.

Paradigmatic stances

A paradigmatic stance of a research influences the perceived purposes, as well as the function that a research has. In this regard, it should be noted that they aid the researcher in defining whatever they are talking about, and also whatever falls within and beyond the legitimate limits of a research. Based on the study conducted by Hill et al. (2018) is presented in the form of an interview with the participants, “We conducted a critical interpretive qualitative research study, which was based on our social constructivist and transformative worldviews” pg 6. Notably, this is in the form of an interpretative paradigm. This kind of paradigm relates various concepts, aid in understanding the world, just the same way others are experiencing it. This paradigm can be traced back to the philosophy of phenomenology, conducted by Edmund Husserl’s, which studies human consciousness, and the concept of self-awareness. On the issue of ontology, interpretativist paradigm questions what reality is, and as such, the researcher believed that it is constructed socially and in addition, there are various intangible realities, owing to the fact that there are many people that construct them (Chilisa & Ntseane, 2010). This then brings forth the opinion that reality is mind-dependent, and also a personal/social construct. Moreover, ontology in Interpretativist paradigm underpins the fact that reality is limited to a given context, time, individuals/groups, as well as space, based on a particular situation, and in this case, it can never be generalized into becoming a common reality. On the other hand, whilst focusing the epistemology concept, it should be noted that researchers that the researcher had the belief that knowledge is subjective, owing to the fact that it is constructed socially and it is mind-independent. The truth is bestowed within human experience, and as such, questions that either can be regarded as true or false are culture bound, context independent, and also historical, although to some extent, some may be universal (Dash, 2005). Moreover, basing the focus on Axiology, the researcher assert that owing to the fact that reality is constructed in the mind, and knowledge is subjective, social inquiry is then value-bound and also value-laden. The researcher is influenced by his or her valued, which then informs the paradigm that he or she chooses for the research, the choice of topic for the research, the methods of data analysis and data collection, and how the findings are interpreted. In this regard, the research purposes to admit the value-laden nature of the research, and as such, reports the biases, as well as the values that are related to the topic of study (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005).

The purpose of this researcher is majorly to understand the experiences of many people. In this regard, the research is conducted in a natural setting, where participants live. The purpose expresses various assumptions of the researcher, whilst trying to understand various human experiences. For example, the research questions might not be established prior to the start of the research study, but they may evolve as the research study progresses. The questions used are often open-ended, whereas others are descriptive and others non-directional (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). There should also be sub-questions, to be used as a guideline for the methodological approach that is adopted, in order to allow the researcher to respond the questions easily. Moreover, the researcher gathers most of the data, and in recognizing the assumptions regarding the subjectivity of the research, the researcher will be obligated to describe himself/herself, his/her values, ideological biases, his/her relationship to the respondents and finally, his/her closeness to the topic of the research. Overall, a significant note should be taken, of the fact that Hill et al. (2018) is a perfect example of a research that involves Interpretativist paradigm, which adopts the subjective view of knowledge. Hill et al. (2018) makes details explanations regarding the definitions, as well as conceptualization of sociocultural issues, and social justice, in a bid to working towards the enhancement of a great certainty on concepts relating to social justice. In this regard, the aim of the study is to map significant variations in definitions, as well as conceptualization of sociocultural issues, as well as social justice amongst PETEs, as well as physical education and sport pedagogy (PESP) educators, in order to work towards enhancing a great certainty on concepts relating to social justice (Hytten and Bettez, 2011). In this regard, it is evident that the study purposes to apply theory into practice, and thus, investigate its effectiveness. In this regard, based on a subjective knowledge, one would expect detailed information to be derived, yet this is not what Hills et al. (2018) purposes to do.

Based on the study conducted by Sullivan et al. (2018), the authors adopted a philosophical approach, whereby, the research used can easily be defines, and of importance is also the fact that the applied methods are consistent, and aligns with the assumptions that are made. Sullivan’ et al study seeks to investigate whether private, selective, and even faith schools, based in England and Wales, precisely in the 1980s aimed at providing academic advantage to learners, in both a longer term and short term, and as such, it applied the positivist approach (Green et al., 2012) Notably, positivist research purposes to develop what is described as “accurate knowledge of the world,” and as such, it is directly linked with the objectivity and science that relates to the world. In this research study, the authors that notes that private, selective, and even faith schools, based in England and Wales, precisely in the 1980s were controlled in a manner that aimed at providing academic advantage to learners, in both a longer term and short term (Mertens, 2009). In this regard, the study applies a significant intervention that purposes to increase the tactic knowledge, as well as measures of the extent to which such impacts on performance through using quantitative analysis of data. The study conducted by Sullivan et al. (2018) uses its findings to make significant and general global statements regarding methods that ought to be applied. For instance, “results show a consistent disadvantage for pupils who attended secondary modern schools, and a consistent advantage for pupils who attended private and grammar schools, across the outcomes of compulsory schooling, post-compulsory schooling, and in terms of the highest qualification achieved at any time up to mid-life.” Pg 12.

Strengths and weaknesses of approaches used in the articles

Based on the provisions on the above section, it is evident that regarding the interpretive paradigm, the researcher should have a crucial purpose of getting the right insight, as well as in-depth information and as such, Hills et al. (2018) uses qualitative analysis to provide detailed explanations to meet the aim of the study, which is to map significant variations in definitions, as well as conceptualization of sociocultural issues, as well as social justice amongst PETEs, as well as physical education and sport pedagogy (PESP) educators, in order to work towards enhancing a great certainty on concepts relating to social justice. However, it is also worth noting that the qualitative approach used by Hills et al. (2018), in their study does not provide rich reports, which are very crucial for interpretivists to understand the context of the discussions fully, yet qualitative methods should be supported by the interpretivists researchers. This is owing to the fact that they portray a world, a world, in which case, reality is socially complex, dynamic, and also constructed (Mertens, 2009). On the other hand, it is worth noting that the study conducted by Sullivan et al. (2018) has been able to provide significant evidence, which is useful whilst applying it to theory. Notably, a positivist approach often results into a reductionist perception, which purposes to ignore important qualities of humans and as such, results in the research findings. As such, it ultimately represents a simplification of the reality. This is in some instance, reflected in the study conducted by Sullivan et al. (2018), as the authors purpose to apply the theory and thus, reflecting it into practice. However, it is evident that it appears as though the theory is oversimplifies, and this then poses as less-successful, as compared to the requirement of a philosophical study that adopts the positivist paradigm (Kawulich, 2011). On the other hand, it could be argued that the purpose of the study conducted by Sullivan et al. (2018) does not act as a significant guideline for those that desire to implement the theory used into practice. This is owing to the fact that it just aids in the development of knowledge, which owing to the positivist nature of the study, would not need a reflection of individual experience. Overall, the paradigm stance of Sullivan et al. (2018) affect the perception of the relationship between practice and theory and the entire role that educational research should have.

The connection between theory and practice

Various movements, as well as theoretical perspectives denote how social justice can easily be conceptualized. These range from various psychological perspectives like humanism that focus on the effective capitalism to the society (critical theory) and cultural explanations relating to inequality. These theoretical position form the basis of social justice and they focus on pedagogies like action research, transformative pedagogies, as well as critical reflection (Gillard, 2011). The critic of the humanist social justice approach forms a basis for theorising the concept of social justice that stems from Marxist critical theory. On the other hand, the critical theory focuses on detailed explanations relating to oppression and advocacy to take actions that against the structures that result into class domination. In relating theory to practice, Sullivan et al. (2018) notes that social justice, as it related to PE began its traction during the mid-1980s, with various PETE, as well as PE teacher critics having identified hidden messages that were inherent in PE. Notably, the epicenter of the research study for social justice in PETE, as well as PE at that time could be traced back to the times of Deakin University, based in Australia (Gibbons & Silva, 2011). This was when David Kirk, as well as Richard Tinning worked together with a large group of academicians, to conceptualize the Institute of Technical Education (ITE) that was aimed at democracy, equality, as well as social justice.

Advocates of various faith schools make claims that are they pose benefits for learner’s educational attainment. This distinctive advantage is claimed by the Catholic schools. However, it is evident that faith schools are often more socially selective as compare to non-faith schools and it is notably not clear whether they could be a benefit above or even beyond the schools’ selectivity impact (Hytten and Bettez, 2011). Theoretical findings indicate that British schooling implies that attending private, as well as grammar schools have conferred to both labor market, as well as academic advantages to learners. Moreover, in view of large private-state resource gap that is experienced in Britain, it could be possible that the private school advantage in Britain may be substantive even in an instance where the differential is typically low or on-existent, especially in other countries when there is low resource gap. In linking theory to practice, Hill, et al. (2018) note that grammar schools tend to academically selective as they admit their learners through competitive entry test. Moreover, ‘secondary modern’ is the term used in referring to schools that are designed for learners that fail the test, set for them for grammar school entrance (Flintoff et al., 2015). It is significant to note that selective schooling used to be a norm in Britain, until 1960s when all-ability and comprehensive schools were introduced. However, it could as well be noted that the opposition to grammar schools has often remained to be focusing on the tendency of various selective schools that aim at increasing inequalities in occupational, as well as educational outcomes (Fernández-Balboa, 2017).

Socio-political-cultural contexts

According to the provisions of Hill et al. (2018), academicians have referred to ‘post’ theories are lenses that aid in explicating social justice. Similar as to critical theory, it is evident that ‘post’ theories require action of structure that lead to social injustice. The ‘post’ theories purpose to question the critical theory perspectives like empowerment, and as such, various scholars suggest that they provide the “language of possibility,” which shifts away from the economical culture, shifting the theories towards the super structural infrastructure (this includes particular historical systems, religious beliefs, political, and even juridical) (Azzarito et al., 2017). Moreover critical pedagogies often focus on the understanding of the manner in which class (interaction between multiple groups), and makes a position that ‘post’ theories pose critical approached that are compelling to PE scholars that work on the ‘critical project’ or even ‘transformative pedagogies.’ In addition, social justice goes further than purposing to examine differences, as well as diversity to analysing deeper, the systems of power, and privileges that contribute to the concept of social inequality (Bell, 2016). Whilst social justice has no single definition, some of its characteristics include power, oppression, and empowerment. Various scholars suggest that it is a process and a goal, and in conceptualization, the process includes democracy, and even dialogue that critically examine cultural, as well as individual oppression whilst on the goal side, it includes empowerment, social responsibility, as well as equal resources distribution (Blackmore, 2013).

On the other hand, according to the provisions of Sullivan et al. (2018), the success of private sectors have influenced the policy of education in Britain, and even internationally, with various reforms aimed at enhancing a quasi-market within the school sector. Moreover, in Britain, state schools, as well as private schools cater for a given faith as long as the history of incorporating church schools in a state sector are still in place (Dronkers & Avram, 2009). This provides the advantage of separating the impacts of faith and private schooling, yet in the US, as faith schools are regarded as private (Burgess et al., 2014). A further argument by various scholars is that there are shared values, as well as social missions of various Catholic schools that promote higher achievement. The selection in academics then denote that selective schools enhance a higher academic standards, and also provide appropriate education for many children that are not capable of affording private education (social class) (DfE, 2016). Additionally, the current context regarding the growing social-economic inequalities, as well as the declining economic prospects have only increased these debates’ salience.

Ethics

Both Sullivan et al. (2018) and Hill et al. (2018) studies adhered to the ESRC and BESRA guidelines, and were thus categorized as ‘insider research.’ Notably, the insider research has both advantages and disadvantages, which include obtaining freer access, as well as stronger rapport, yet entails disadvantages, relating to preconceptions that the researcher may bring forth. Researchers are obligated to protect the integrity of their research and as such, they are required to ensure that any form of tension that may arise, due to the research being conducted may not affect the manner in which the research is reported (Creswell, 2014). The tensions that arise that relate to sponsors of the research should be handled effectively. For instance, however much the research conducted by Hill et al. (2018) was not very consistent with the ESRC guideline, as it did not have an effective data management plan. However, this did not affect the reported research. Moreover, it should be noted that both studies made the participants to remain anonymous. In line with this, they were not allowed to give their personal details and once the analysis was concluded, both the qualitative data and quantitative data derived from Hill et al. (2018), and Sullivan et al. (2018) respectively were discarded.

Discussion

According to hill et al. (2018), there are some variations, which denote social justice education, as well as sociocultural issues, especially in PETE that result from the responses provided by the local, regional, or even the national political/economic/social issues. In some instances, the context may be constructed , as per the definition of the term social justice (Breunig, 2011). However, there are a few of the examples that divides social justice in battles that are culture specific. However, it should also be noted that in some small exceptions, there is a substantive differences, in terms of the perspectives that lay in the differences between various scholars, with and even without educational backgrounds, as well as research interests in issues that are sociocultural, or those that are in the national context, yet put social justice at the forefront (Cliff, 2012). The sociology language was initially less frequent within the education systems in the US, as it was cognisant, whilst relating it to sociocultural issues, and as an object used in study. Various European, as well as Australian scholars purposed to be cognisant in their critical theory, and other issues related to democracy, equity, as well as power, especially in problematizing their knowledge through various social concepts, and creating changes in schools. Whilst this is regarded as dichotomy, it is simplistic, and also salient, considering that there is need to understand social justice (Felis-Anaya et al., 2017). In accordance with the provision of Sullivan et al. (2018), the results indicate s consistent disadvantage for learners who attended secondary modern schools and also a consistent advantage for learners that attended private, as well as grammar schools in the 1980s, when there was need for compulsory schooling, as well as post-compulsory schooling (Clark, 2010). This was evident when comparing the highest level of qualification that learners achieved at any time up to their mid-life. Notably, these differentials are noted to be highly attenuated by a strict set of controls, based on family backgrounds, as well as prior cognitive attainment. However, there are also substantial differentials that remain (Cribb et al., 2015).

Conclusions

In order to enhance the value of educational research, the researcher needs to ensure that the research is significant. In this regard, measures need to be taken, in order to enhance good research quality. Hill et al. (2018) and Sullivan et al. (2018) pose as a good researches that enhance effective educational research. Where possible, detailed information such as the research provided by Hill et al. (2018) aid in providing definitive answers, and as such, aid in developing policy in practice, thus, ultimately ensuring that the research is published in a manner that can be implemented into practice successfully. Notably, the research validity needs not to be placed entirely on its ability to be useful to practitioners, as well as policymakers by focusing majorly on the questions that they have. This is owing to the fact that it could narrow the research, thus enabling it to enhance measures such as ‘impact’ that is noted to be unpredictable. However, it should be noted that the nature of education denotes that the relationship existing between practice and theory is vital and both of the aforementioned research papers demonstrate how researchers are often involved in research.

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