Personality Disorder And Criminal Behavior

Introduction

The relationship between personality disorder and criminal behaviour is an area of study that interests both psychologists as well as criminologists. The interest arises from the conflicted nature of the relationship, because while there is an association between PD and offending, the nature of the relationship is not as well understood (Davison & Janca, 2012). There are certain kinds of crimes where the relationship between personality disorder and offending is more clearly established. For instance, rates of personality disorder are high in all serious offenders, but in certain kinds of offences, the role played by personality disorder is more clearly established or greater, such as, in rape, fratricide, and stalking behaviour.

Relationship between Personality Disorder and Criminal Behaviour

There is a well established relationship between personality disorder and violent offending and re-offending, due to which the presence of personality disorder is generally incorporated as a risk factor in structured risk assessment tools (Davison & Janca, 2012).

Roberts and Coid (2010) examined the relationship between personality subtypes and crimes in a sample of respondents in English and Welsh prisons. The study they conducted used data from the National Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity in prisoners to examine the relationships between different personality disorder and lifetime offences (Roberts & Coid, 2010). The authors interviewed prisoners using self-report questionnaires about previous conviction history. The results of the data analysis found a relationship between conduct disorder scores and all offence categories (Roberts & Coid, 2010). Moreover, there was a relationship between adult antisocial personality disorder scores and different offences, such as, obstruction of justice, robbery, firearms, blackmail, fraud, burglary and the more violent offences (Roberts & Coid, 2010). The study also found that there is a link between narcissistic personality disorder scores and fraud and forgery (Roberts & Coid, 2010). Surprisingly, the study did not find a link between between borderline personality disorder scores and types of offending (Roberts & Coid, 2010). The study found that there is a link between avoidant personality disorder scores and criminal damage (Roberts & Coid, 2010). Interestingly, the study found that there was a different link between different kinds of disorders and specific crimes. Thus, obsessive–compulsive personality disorder was found linked to firearm offences and dependent personality disorder was found linked to firearm offences and violence (Roberts & Coid, 2010). Paranoid personality disorder was found linked to robbery and blackmail but there was no link with driving offences (Roberts & Coid, 2010). Schizotypal personality disorder was found linked to arson but not associated with robbery and blackmail (Roberts & Coid, 2010). Schizoid personality disorder scores was found linked with kidnapping, burglary and theft (Roberts & Coid, 2010). The most interesting finding of this study was that there was no significant link between homicide offences and sex offending and any personality disorder scores (Roberts & Coid, 2010).

The brief discussion above shows empirical evidence of a link between personality disorder and criminal behaviour. This link is more clearly made out as per that study between certain kinds of personality disorder and criminal behaviour, which in the case of the more violent homicidal offences is not made out. This is interesting because it raises the possibility that the more violent offences are not caused by personality disorder. This also raises an interesting question of why the less grave violent offences, such as, robbery and theft and fraud are linked to certain kinds of personality disorder. It may also be noted that this is not the only research study to show such as link between personality disorder and criminal behaviour. Another study conducted by Warren and South (2009) explored the link between cluster B personality disorder and patterns of criminality and violence in a sample of women prisoners. Their study found no significant link between antisocial, borderline, histrionic or narcissistic personality disorder scores and history of convictions (Warren & South, 2009). The study did find that there was a negative relationship between antisocial PD scores and homicide and a positive relationship between borderline personality disorder scores and prostitution (Warren & South, 2009). The study also found a positive relationship between antisocial, borderline and narcissistic personality disorder scores and perpetrating threats and physical assaults in the prison environment (Warren & South, 2009). Similarly, borderline and histrionic personality disorder scores were associated with perpetrating sexual assaults and narcissistic and antisocial scores were associated with institutional infractions (Warren & South, 2009). Like the study by Roberts and Coid (2010), this study also shows a link between specific personality disorder scores and criminal behaviour. The difference between these two studies is that Roberts and Coid (2010) study was based on male prisoners, while the study by Warren and South (2009) was based on female prisoners. Nevertheless, we see a similar pattern of specific kinds of personality disorder and specific kinds of criminal behaviour. One take way from both these studies is that there is a link between personality disorder and criminal offending, with this link more clearly established in the case of certain kinds of personality disorder and specific kinds of crimes.

There are studies that explore the link between specific kinds of personality disorder and specific kinds of crimes. These will be considered in the next parts of the essay. In particular, this essay discusses antisocial personality disorder and narcissist personality disorder as causes of crimes.

Antisocial personality disorder as a cause for crimes

Francia, Coolidge, and White (2010) found that rapists have higher antisocial personality disorder scores than child molesters. Interestingly, they also found that there are more similarities between rapists and nonsexual offenders in terms of antisocial personality disorder (Francia, Coolidge, & White, 2010). The study conducted by them was based on the data collected from incarcerated male sexual offenders in Colorado, USA, with data being collected from 251 rapists and 311 child molesters and a group of nonsexual offenders (Francia, Coolidge, & White, 2010). The analysis of the data revealed that rapists had significantly higher levels of antisocial personality disorder traits than child molesters, while their narcissistic traits showed no difference (Francia, Coolidge, & White, 2010). Nonsexual offenders also scored higher on the antisocial scale than child molesters, which the child molesters had higher levels of avoidant personality disorder traits than rapists and higher levels of avoidant, dependent, and schizoid traits than nonsexual offenders. The study found that for sexual offenders, avoidant personality disorder had the highest prevalence and there was also high prevalence for obsessive compulsive, schizoid, paranoid and borderline personality disorder (Francia, Coolidge, & White, 2010).

The findings of these studies have interesting insights for the treatment of certain kinds of personality disorder with respect to criminal behaviour. This may be especially true with respect to child molesters who show lesser antisocial traits as compared to rapists. This is also brought out in a research done by Eher, Rettenberger, and Schilling (2010), who did a study with 807 incarcerated sexual offenders in Austrian prisons and found that sexual offenders displayed high rates of personality disorder and substance abuse. Like the study by Francia, Coolidge, and White (2010), the study by Eher, Rettenberger, and Schilling (2010) also showed a marked distinction between rapists and child molesters with the rapists showing higher rates of personality disorder while child molesters had higher rates of sexual disorders. Eher, Rettenberger, and Schilling (2010) suggest that the important implication of the research findings is that child molesters may benefit from treatment aimed at sexual disorders. On the other hand, rapists may benefit from treatment of cluster B personality disorder. The other implication of this is that there is a direct link between the personality disorder as causes of these crimes as treatment for the disorders can reduce criminality.

Moran (1999) conducted their research on antisocial personality disorder and criminal behaviour. The link between antisocial personality disorder and crime has led to epidemiological surveys, which show antisocial personality disorder as a common disorder, with prevalence rates between 2 to 3% among community, and up to 60% among male prisoners (Moran, 1999). This points at a significant linking between prevalence of antisocial personality disorder as being cause for certain kind of crimes. Research also points at a link between antisocial personality disorder and certain kinds of offending behaviour, such as, substance abuse and deliberate self harm (Moran, 1999). Research indicates a strong association between antisocial personality disorder and violent crime (Eronen, Hakola, & Tiihonen, 1996). This is not surprising considering that research has already indicated that antisocial personality disorder is prevalent among the unemployed, homeless, wife-batterers, and child abusers, with higher incidence of divorce, unemployment and criminal behaviour (Eronen, Hakola, & Tiihonen, 1996). Therefore, there is a definite link between antisocial personality disorder and criminality and it may be said that antisocial personality disorder may be a cause for crime in certain individuals and with relation to specific crimes.
Antisocial personality disorder also happens to be a chronic condition generally, which points at a need to consider the link between the disorder and criminal behaviour from a criminal justice perspective. The role played by psychiatrists is especially significant here because psychiatrists who have referrals of individuals with antisocial personality disorder, may be in a position to predict criminal behaviour on the part of the individuals. While this does not go to say that psychiatrists should be made responsible for the criminal behaviour of their clients, what this does mean that there is a scope for creating a better understanding about the disorder and the possibility of crime on the part of the individuals. Some support for this assessment may be found in a study by Fridell, Hesse, Jæger, and Kühlhorn (2008) .The study was a longitudinal record-linkage study of a cohort of 1052 drug abusers recruited from a detoxification and short-term rehabilitation unit in Lund, Sweden (Fridell, Hesse, Jæger, & Kühlhorn, 2008). Interestingly, the study found link between antisocial personality disorders and certain kinds of criminal behaviour (Fridell, Hesse, Jæger, & Kühlhorn, 2008). The study found that people with antisocial personality disorders were 2.16 times more likely to be charged with theft, and 2.44 times more likely to be charged committing multiple types of crime (Fridell, Hesse, Jæger, & Kühlhorn, 2008). The authors of the study suggested that antisocial personality disorder should be taken more seriously in drug abusers, so that treatment of these individuals can be targeted for prevention of crime in society (Fridell, Hesse, Jæger, & Kühlhorn, 2008). This clearly links the disorder with the causes for specific crimes. An important take away from the study discussed above is that psychiatrists can play an important role in treatment of patients with certain kinds of personality disorders so that the

An important take away from the study discussed above is that psychiatrists can play an important role in treatment of patients with certain kinds of personality disorders so that the treatment plans include specific measures that target personality disorders with an eye to reducing criminal behaviour and prevention of crime. As argued by Fridell, Hesse, Jæger, and Kühlhorn (2008), prevention of crime can be a component of psychiatric treatment when psychiatrists are aware of the personality disorder traits of the patients and the possible links of such personality disorder traits with specific kinds of criminal behaviour. There is therefore a very strong connection between the personality disorders as a cause for specific crimes. This is specifically significant with reference to drug users or alcoholics with antisocial personality disorder, which can be linked to specific criminal behaviour (Fridell, Hesse, Jæger, & Kühlhorn, 2008). It is also important that the study reported that offending behaviour on the part of the patients of antisocial personality disorders was most likely to occur post treatment, with the study specifically noting:

Patients who were diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder were more likely to be criminally active during an average follow-up period of two decades. This effect was independent of time: as no interaction between time and diagnosis was found. The relationship between ASPD and crime held after controlling for several confounders. We also found that non-ASPD subjects were criminally active, with a large majority being registered for an offence at some point during their lives. However, ASPD subjects differed in degree, by being more criminally active, more likely to commit multiple types of crimes, and being registered for theft or other property crimes” (Fridell, Hesse, Jæger, & Kühlhorn, 2008, p. 808).

Antisocial personality disorders and individuals with psychopathy can be linked to very violent crimes (LaBrode, 2007). Research links antisocial personality disorders with serial killing (LaBrode, 2007). It may however be noted that all individuals with antisocial personality disorder are not psychopaths although almost all psychopaths would have antisocial personality disorder (LaBrode, 2007). Again, all psychopaths are not necessarily serial killers, but a subset of psychopathic individuals may be compelled to kill (LaBrode, 2007). It may also be noted that studies show that psychopathic offenders are three or four times more likely to violently reoffend after their release from custody as compared to nonpsychopathic offenders (LaBrode, 2007). A very interesting point is raised with respect to serial killers and he possibility of being born a certain way with certain inherent qualities that may be linked to heinous crimes by LaBrode (2007):

“Serial killers such as Gary Ridgeway, Ed Gein, Ted Bundy, Jeffrey Dahmer, BTK (Dennis Rader), John Wayne Gacy, and Ed Kemper can all be identified as psychopaths. Ed Gein was even the inspiration for the characters of Norman Bates from "Psycho" and Buffalo Bill from "Silence of the Lambs". He too wore the skin of his victims when he dressed up as a transvestite …. These serial murderers intrigue the average person because the average person cannot fathom committing such a heinous crime and never showing any remorse. Even though many serial killers share striking similarities in their personalities, crimes, and histories, they are totally different people, born and raised by different parents, have had different life experiences, and are from different places and different times. Could it be possible that people are born this way? (p. 154)”.

What is being mooted or questioned here is whether it is possible that certain psychological traits are responsible for increased possibilities of serial killing. As noted in this quote, serial killers like Jeffrey Dahmer and Ted Bundy may have been born with certain traits or mental qualities that led them to serial killing. Some support for this argument may be found in the prevalence of some common characteristics between some famous serial killers, including a general description of being a little "off" as children and having the tendency to set fires, torture animals, and wet their beds, these behaviours being described as a "triad" of symptoms for serial killers (LaBrode, 2007, p. 155). Support for the argument that serial killing is prompted by the prevalence of certain characteristics including antisocial personality disorder is seen in the use of profiling techniques by investigators within the criminal justice system (LaBrode, 2007). In psychiatry, more emphasis should be put on exploring the prevalence of antisocial personality disorders in individuals and the link to crime by individuals who exhibit antisocial personality disorder and who also exhibit characteristics that are common in profiling of serial killers.

Borderline personality disorder as a cause for crimes

Some research studies provide empirical evidence on the link between stalking and personality disorder (Sansone & Sansone, 2010). Stalking is nuisance and has adverse psychological and at times physical effects on victims. Stalkers may exhibit borderline personality disorder, which is characterised unstable and intense interpersonal relationships and a tendency to avoid real or imagined abandonment (Sansone & Sansone, 2010). Studies indicate that most of the stalkers exhibit higher borderline personality disorder (James & Farnham, 2003; Sansone & Sansone, 2010). For instance, James and Farnham (2003) conducted a study with 85 stalkers who were referred to a forensic service, and their study found that 24 percent of those studied exhibited some kind of Axis II disorder. In a more recent study conducted with a sample of 362 admissions to a high-security hospital, the researchers found that most of the individuals classified as stalkers suffered from psychosis and Axis II disorders (Whyte, Petch, Penny, & Reiss, 2008). In a study conducted in the United States with 148 court-referred stalking offenders, Rosenfeld (2003) found that 52 percent of the sample had borderline, antisocial, and narcissistic traits or disorders (Rosenfeld, 2003). These studies all indicate a link between stalking behaviour and certain kinds of borderline or antisocial personality disorders. These point at a link between personality disorders and criminal behaviour. However, like the other studies considered earlier, these studies concerning stalking and its link with criminal behaviour also points at certain kinds of disorders being more specifically related to the certain kinds of criminal behaviour.

Narcissist personality disorder as a cause for crimes

Certain kinds of personality disorders, especially narcissist personality disorder may be linked to white collar crime (Blickle, Schlegel, Fassbender, & Klein, 2006). In a study covering Europe, the researchers studied the link between personality disorders and high level white collar crime (Blickle, Schlegel, Fassbender, & Klein, 2006). In this context, “high level” white collar crime was described as crime “committed by a corporate manager, a high- ranking technical specialist, an official representative of a corporation, or the owner of a corporation” (Blickle, Schlegel, Fassbender, & Klein, 2006, p. 221). Therefore, focus was drawn on individuals who are socially respectable and would generally not be considered as potentially criminal. This presents a complication for predictability of the crime as it will not generally be considered likely that such individuals have criminal inclinations. Generally speaking, the notions or perceptions of potentially criminal behaviour is attached to individuals from low-income families and those with substance abuse problems. Also complicating this scenario is the fact that most of these individuals may not be seeing a psychiatrist, and there is no way of identifying those who may be classified as having narcissist personality disorder. Another complication is the kind of crime that can be committed by such individuals being white collar crime, which is generally not violent crime but is related to economic offences. These are not as prevalent as violent crimes although their effect may be that much wider and more persevering in terms of social impacts (Potter, 2014).

In the study conducted by Blickle, Schlegel, Fassbender, and Klein (2006) one of the samples consisted of 76 male prison inmates from 14 correctional institutions in Germany, who had been convicted of high level white collar crimes. The prisoners had been convicted of crimes of bribery, counterfeiting, embezzlement, forgery, fraud, fraudulent bankruptcy, smuggling, and tax evasion (Blickle, Schlegel, Fassbender, & Klein, 2006). The study found that white collar criminals were more hedonistic than their non-criminal counterparts (Blickle, Schlegel, Fassbender, & Klein, 2006). This points at prevalence of certain personality disorders for those who are capable of committing white collar crime. The study also pointed at higher narcissistic tendencies in white collar criminals than in their non criminal counterparts (Blickle, Schlegel, Fassbender, & Klein, 2006). Importantly, the study indicated that non criminal managers had higher behavioural self-control as compared to white-collar criminals (Blickle, Schlegel, Fassbender, & Klein, 2006). What the results of the above discussed study show is that white collar crime may be more prevalent in people with certain kinds of personality disorder, more specifically narcissist personality disorder. This again points at the positive link between personality disorders and specific kinds of criminal behaviour.

What the above discussion on different type of personality disorders as being causes of crimes, shows is that it is not necessary that all kinds of personality disorders lead to criminal behaviour or that criminal behaviour can be generalised in terms of personality disorders. What this means is that certain kinds of criminal behaviour may be linked to certain kinds of personality disorders. What this speaks to is the need to consider how certain personality disorders may be related to criminal behaviour and to involve such considerations into psychiatric practice as well as criminal justice system. Criminal justice system bases itself on the notion of crime and punishment, with a greater emphasis on punishing those who are guilty of certain offences. There is usually not an effort to consider the prevalence of mental illnesses as a cause for commission of crime, unless insanity is specifically used as a defence in criminal trials. Due to this, there is a significant population of prisoners in England and Wales who have mental health issues (Reed, 2003). At this point, the seminal work of John Howard may be mentioned here (Howard, 1777 ).

John Howard was particularly concerned with the state of prisons in England and paid some attention to the mental health of the prisoners, leading to the passing of the Penitentiary Act 1779 (Hitchcock, 2012, p. 188). Howard noted that there were many incarcerated individuals who had mental illnesses (Reed, 2003). Although this work is dated, it is still significant because there are still people in jails who have mental illnesses (Reed, 2003). With respect to the link between personality disorders and criminal behaviour, it may be useful to consider the prevalence of personality disorders as a cause for criminal behaviour. Psychiatrists and criminal justice system may work together to deal with this issue so that there is some response to those prisoners who are in prison for offending behaviour which may be linked to their personality disorders. Continue your exploration of A Critical Analysis from the Criminal Justice System Perspective with our related content.

Conclusion

Personality disorders are shown to have a significant link to criminality. Certain kinds of personality disorders, such as, antisocial personality disorders, narcissist personality disorders, and borderline personality disorder have been shown to be causes for specific crimes. This is interesting because it points to links between specific psychological conditions and specific criminal behaviours. In other words, if specific personality disorders do show stronger links to specific criminal behaviours, then the case for the argument that personality disorders lead to criminal behaviour becomes stronger. If there were no links between personality disorders and criminal behaviour and if the former did not cause the latter, then there would be lack of evidence on specific psychological conditions leading to higher risk of criminal behaviour would not be there. As this essay has shown, there is considerable literature which shows empirical evidence on the link between personality disorders and causes of crimes. This goes to provide a significant argument that there is a link between personality disorder and criminality. In other words, personality disorders do lead to higher risks for certain kinds of criminal behaviours. Thus, antisocial personality disorder is linked to greater risk for drug abuse, robberies and other violent crime and narcissist personality disorder is linked to white collar crimes. On the other hand, there is less incidence of antisocial personality disorder amongst child rapists who are more likely to have sexual disorders, as opposed to rapists, who are more likely to have antisocial personality disorder. The growing body of empirical evidence that links specific personality disorders with specific crimes points at there being sufficient truth in the statement that personality disorders lead to criminality. This is not to say that all individuals with personality disorders will become criminals, rather that a significant proportion of criminals under specific crimes, have personality disorders. It may be noted at the end that psychiatrists can perform a valuable function by identifying the risk factors for antisocial and violent behaviour to help create a more effective intervention for those who are at high risk for committing violent offences or are likely to reoffend. Therefore, to conclude this essay, it may be reiterated that personality disorders are is specific kinds of crimes, causes for those crimes and psychiatrists as well as the criminal justice system needs to pay more attention to this link.

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