Deciphering the Complexity of Culture

Introduction

Mullins (2005) contends that culture is a concept which is multifaceted and its trait of possessing different meanings makes efforts to decipher a challenge. In his efforts to put a description to the Japanese culture, which will be the center of attention of this study, Berglund (2004) highlights that any trait of culture presented is representative of only one point on a continuum of unlimited numbers of expressions of that particular cultural trait. This is because, the acquisition and presentation of primary information regarding something as wide and sophisticated as a nation’s culture cannot be completed. Ford & Honeycutt (1992) cite authors like Hoebel, Kroeber and Kluckholm who have different ways of defining culture. In one definition, culture is used to refer to the integrated sum total og behavioral traits which are learned and are shared and manifest by members of a particular society. Culture can also be defined as knowledge that is communicable and consists every aspect which strikes a line of separation between non-humans and humans (Ford & Honeycutt, 1992). Culture is regarded as human social life’s historical achievements.

The Japanese culture is strong and deeply ingrained in the nation’s society to the extent that it radiates outwards to the rest of the world. This means that the Japanese culture is highly influential. One thing, which authors like Bucknall (2004) point out is that the Japanese culture is difficult to understand, especially for a Western outsider trying to decipher some of its aspects. Berglund (2005) also holds this idea, that the most difficult task is for an individual from an entirely different nation and culture trying to put together decades of the way of life of a different people. Bucknall (2004) suggests that a lot of years of study are required for a foreigner to comprehend what happens in the Japanese culture and why the happenings take place.

Many authors praise Japan for its unshaken and defining culture. Bucknall (2004) points out the nation’s homogenous nature and its isolation by choice and by geography for many years which is the main cause of having a small number of foreigners residing in Japan. The Japanese culture embodies a variety of aspects which have pushed it to the precincts of being internationally recognized as the Asian way of life (Teasdale, 1999). Teasdale (1999) asserts that the Japanese incessantly emphasize on tradition in their daily lives. Berglund (2004) contends that the Japanese are more oriented towards being reserved, and this is in accordance with the uninhabited continuum. To highlight a few, some of the Japanese traditions include sumo wrestling, origami, sushi, and bonsai, and these are representative of some of the traditions which got to spread to the Western world (Teasdale, 1999). Sumo is an ancient art that is currently a national sport in Japan. Even though the contemporary society is partially easing in on tradition, it has always been virtual taboo for a Japanese to marry a foreign individual (Bucknall, 2004). To illustrate how culture is heavily ingrained in Japan, Bucknall (2004) identifies that 98.5% of people residing in the nation are of Japanese ethnicity while the remainder consist of Koreans, whom in casual view, resemble the Japanese. Teasdale (1999) opines that it would be quite unusual for an individual to walk down the streets of Tokyo without spotting a woman clad in a complete kimono dress. In general, the Japanese will always juxtapose ancient ways with modernity, especially in the current technology-driven world.

The main area under investigation in this study is the influence of Japanese culture on organizational culture, particularly the culture of Toyota Motors. The key actors in this research will be the Japanese people, the national institutions, national culture, economy and business, and the labor market. The Japanese people have an extended and abundant historical culture, although most of these cultures are acquired externally from China (Bucknall, 2004). The national institutions include the government, its rules and regulations, the employees’ associations and unions, and system of education. The national culture focuses on the main system of values which drive the society. These include hard-work, the respect for seniors, collectivism and cooperation (Adhikari, 2005). The economy and business of Japan will consider the system of employment relations in Japan which is regarded as being material towards the prosperity of the nation’s economy. The labor market will illustrate how Japan grew into being one of the largest economies in the world (Adhikari, 2005). The aim of this research is to analyze the effect of national culture over the organizational culture of Toyota Motors in Japan. The objectives of the research are pursuant to achieving the aim of the study are as follows:

To determine the national culture of Japan

To determine the organizational culture of Toyota Motors in Japan, and

To analyze the impact of national culture on the organizational culture of Toyota Motors in Japan.

This study was undertaken to test how deep the layers of culture affect the behavior of people both inside and outside the organization. The study identifies whether national culture can influence both public and private sector organizations.

Literature review

Hofstede’s Model of Cultural Dimensions

To better understand Japan’s strong economic prospects, it is worth to study the impact of national culture over the organizational culture using Hofstede’s Model which consists cultural values in five dimensions. This study is done using a cultural value scale (CVSCALE) that consists 26 items which have good psychonometric properties which can be well relied on (Yoo, et al., 2011).The CVSCALE serves as a measure of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions at individual level.

Hofstede’s Model, however, has methodological faults which need to be addressed. One methodological difficulty as pointed out by Hoppe (1990) is that the metric’s stability can only be experienced at the national level and not at the individual level. This was following his study which replicated Hofstede’s model in 17 countries (Hoppe, 1990). Another study done by Spector et al. (2001) revealed that the Hofstede metric had low levels of reliability after administering the scale to up to 7000 employee spanning in nations across Americas, Europe, Asia and Africa. The study was purposefullyu done to evaluate the construct validity and reliability of the Hofstede Model (Spector, et al., 2001).

Hofstede’s model analyzes cultural dimensions in a manner where behavioural domains are influenced by cultural values. For a long time, the model has been applied in the work context. This brings about another challenge when it comes to its applicability to a population outside the work context. It is difficult for unemployed individuals to find relation to Hofstede’s model in their day to day activities. Yoo et al. (2011) asserts that students, full-time homemakers, independent consultants, unemployed people, retirees, and self-employed entrepreneurs require a metric which will add in their non-work context. Despite the limitations and challenges posed in the application of the model, Hofstede’s metric remains as the most preferred reference point in studies relating to sociology, psychology, management, and marketing (Rinuatsi, et al., 2014). With knowledge of its uses and limitations, it is vital to proceed towards understanding how Hofstede’s model can be studied at an individual level using a CVSCALE. To begin with, the first force used in the analysis is power distance. Power distance is the limits to which people with less power in organizations and institutions within a nation accept and expect that power is inequally distributed. Avoidance of uncertainty illustrates the limits to which people of a culture are feeling threatened by and insecure about situations which are unknown or uncertain. Individualism considers how individual ties are weak such that people have a tendency to look after themselves or their immediate family members. Masculinity represents the dominance of the male sex, and the observance of this pattern in the larger modern and traditional societies (Yoo, et al., 2011). Confucian dynamism relates to the long term orientation which is either short term or long term concern ablout the past, present and future.

In the context of Japanese national culture, Hofstede’s model can be applied in order to understand the way individual values and belief systems are influenced by culture. It is worth noting that the Japanese society, consistent with every other culture studied using Hofstede’s metric, has its hidden and visible parts. The most visible part of Japanese society is its institutions, organizations and the national identity they posses. The hidden part consists the values shared by individuals in traditional Japanese culture. These values ought to be understood in order to reflect on their true essence (Hofstede, et al., 2010). This is because values are ingrained in an individual throughout their childhood and as they grow up, these values subconsciously make up their belief systems. Rinuatsi et al. (2014) opines that these belief systems, growing out of cultural values and rules of social behavior, are reflect in terms of work patterns, lifestyle, how to mingle and relax or social interaction, and behavior observed in consumption patterms.

The following section explains the different cultural dimensions which were identified by Hofstede.

Power Distance

As previously defined, this cultural dimension appeals to inequality among people in society. One of the underlying logic in this dimension is that the society is divided into two; those with power and those wwith less power. This division is the source of inequality and is of great significance because it is visibly endorsed by the sets of leaders and followers in a society (Hofstede, 2011). Hofstede (2011) contends that every society is unequal, and there exist others which are more unequal.

Differences can be identified between large- and small- power distance communities. They are highlighted as follows.

Avoidance of Uncertainty

Hofstede (2011) affirms that the avoidance of uncertainty is different from avoidance of risk. This is because the society’s tolerance for ambiguousness that exists in various aspects of life is dealt with accordingly. This dimension considers an unstructured situation where cultural programming allows individuals to feel either comfortable or uncomfortable. Strict codes of behavior, rules and laws, disapproving opinions which are deviant and believing in absolute truth are some of the ways some cultures use to avoid uncertainty.

The following are some of the notable differences between the strong and weak societies which avoid uncertainty.

Individualism Vs Collectivism

Like two alternate sides of the coin, individualism and collectivism are antonyms to each other (Hofstede, 2011). This represents the degree to which people in a community integrate themselves in groups. In most individualistic families, it is observed that individuals look after themselves and their immediate family. On the other hand, in collectivism societies, from birth, a person is integrated into cohesive groups which majorly consists of the extended family consist grandparents, uncles and aunts.

The following are some of the differences between individualist and collectivist societies.

Masculinity Vs Feminitiy

This cultural dimension is more oriented to society than the individual. The dimension commonly focuses on the division of roles and value distribution between men and women and it stands as an issue that is fundamental in every society (Hofstede, 2011). Studies reveal that values assigned to women are more common from one society to another than men’s values. Also, values assigned to men have some degree of assertiveness, competitiveness, and to a large extent different from the nature of values assigned to women from one nation to another. In the pole of assertiveness, men are regarded as being masculine, while those in the pole of moderation and showing care are feminine. In a feminine nation, women are modest and caring, similar to the men. In masculine nations, women tend to be competitive ans assertive, just like the men.

The following are some of the distinct differences between masculinity and feminity in societies.

Confucian Work Dynamism

This dimension is related to the contemporary growth in economy. Some studies refer to the dimension as “short-term versus long-term dynamism” (Hofstede, 2011). The values upheld in this dimension include having a shameful sense, ordering relationships according to status, thrift and perseverance. Other values include respect for cultural norms, protecting of one’s image, individual stability and steadiness. These values, positively rated in the society, were already part of Confucian teachings. A culture which is long-term oriented tends to consider the world to be in a flux, therefore, preparing for the future is deemed important. A culture which is short-term oriented is considers the world just as it was created in essence, therefore, there is heavy reliance on the past as a guide or moral compass for sticking to what is believed to be morally good. (Hofstede, 2019).

Japanese National Institutions

Western investors in Japan would not have been attracted to the nation if they did not gain restless energy and ambition. History has shown the way Japan has steadily assimilated new practices and ideas and shown bravery in the execution of massive projects. At the top of everything else, Japanese people have trained frequently and exercised organizational capacity. History has shown a close link between the growth of organizations and the society. The Japanese have a family system and the feudal discipline which has been long maintained in the society makes a great contribution to the growing and development of present-day institutions. Beck and Beck suggest (Placeholder1) that the Tokugawa period makes up the traditional past of the nation which holds evidence for the growth of modern institutions of Japan. Prolonged civil wars in the 16th Century led to the establishment of the House of Tokugawa. Ieyasu, as a result of victory in the war, made a new arrangement of the Japanese political map. The bakuhan system is the political structure which was developed by Ieyasu which consisted domains and shogunate that allowed the Tokugawa Shogunate to control Edo directly (Adhikari, 2005). As the de jure head of state, the shogunate focused in the control and maintenance of imperial institutions. Military dictatorship called bakafu was used and it made the institutions rigid and hierarchic. Merchants were at the low rank in society and young children were used as apprentices with whom the merchant expected that they would grow into adults who would like the work of being a merchant. Throughout the Tokugawa period, government institutions were responsible for fast industrialization. Entrepreneurship grew as a result of influence from the samurai. The tokugawa period also relied on the fukhu kyohei slogan which instilled a great sense of consciousness towards the public, the public welfare and the spirit of nationalism (Adhikari, 2005). The first joint stock company system grew as a result of the National Bank Act that was issued by the government in 1872. Banks were set up in 1876 -79. The Bank of Japan was developed in 1882 and this resulted in the growth of other tied institutions such as joint-stock firms, commercial banks, shipping, marine insurance, papers and textile. Parliamentary democracy was adopted in 1889 when the national constitution was drafted. Voluntary associations were formed as a result of provisions in the constitution and this resulted in the formation of voluntary institutions which associated labor with the business community. The Commercial Law which was enacted in the year 1893 was responsible for the free forming of joint-stock organizations without permit from the government. Railways grew into lucrative businesses. 70% of the joint stock organizations were railroad enterprises. By the period after the first world war, it became evident that Japan was already relishing in economic prosperity.

Japanese National Culture

Many authors lay emphasis on the uniqueness and homogenic nature of the Japanese culture (Bucknall, 2004); (Takeuchi, 2006). The ethnic identity of Japan is distinct from other kinds of national identities to the extreme of preventing an individual from acquiring the stable label as a global citizen that can interact with people irrespective of their differences (Takeuchi, 2006). Japan’s culture is very unique that it is broadly recognized as being symbolic of the lifestyle in Asia (Teasdale, 1999). When compared with a variety of other industrial nations, Japan’s culture can be regarded as having no quite difference in terms of modern structure of society, although, the nation stands out when it comes to its culture. In this context, the term ‘modern’ refers to the identical changes which occur in the industrial and occupational structure of different societies that come with technological development (Caudill, n.d). It is important to understand the Japanese culture because, its awareness can result in great success of an international business, especially Toyota. Cultural awareness is pivotal because its absence risks failure of multi-national organizations doing business in the international arena. For example, an American-based company wishing to set up a branch in India as part of its expansion strategy would have to understand the cultural dynamics of the Indian people first. This is because of cultural difference between people in America and India. To illustrate this cultural difference is the Indian taboo against the consumption of beef which is mostly considered as irrational from the point of view of other nations, especially Westernized countries (Hite & Hawes, 1991).Therefore, the American-based company would have to adjust its market entry and penetration strategies to suit the cultural views of the people in India (Yoo, et al., 2011). Ford and Honeycutt (1992) highlight that Japan takes pride in and makes a great deal of effort to protects its cultural traditions. An example, to illustrate the Japanese adherence to cultural heritage is the reluctance of embracing women as part of business. Muneo Yoshikawa, a University of Hawaii professor of language anf Japanese culture, confirms that a woman is likened with air and is completely necessary in life. But she is hardly noticed by the Japanese man (Ford & Honeycutt, 1992, p. 29). This perspective of women in Japan extends across every dimension of Japanese society. Even though influence from the western culture is slowly creeping in, change in perspective of women in business is on a snail’s pace. Women’s advancement in management practices is not regarded as being necessary – a cultural ideology which reflects the masculinity of Japan’s national culture. One corporate leader in Japan testified that it would be difficult for an individual to give a female manager any form of credibility. This serves as an illustration that in the Hofstede’s model, Japan’s cultural dimension gravitates towards masculinity.

Japanese national culture also has specific traits which are unique and are rarely observed in other parts of the world. These traits are having a social structure that is vertical, laying emphasis on non-verbal communication, harmony and cooperation and the inherent need to place the public needs over individual concerns (Batyko, 2012). Therefore, it would be safe to categorize Japanese culture as falling under collectivism, because concerns of the larger population are placed over individual interests (Hofstede, 2011). Traditionally, Japan has placed great value on public good. Even though the constitution developed after the second world war gives priority to individual rights, traditional belief systems have prevailed in various aspects of Japanese social life (Batyko, 2012). It is not until the awakening of nationalism that Japan’s homogenous population bubble was prick to include some migrant workers (Takeuchi, 2006). Nationalism, according to McVeigh is an international school of thought which is made legitimate by other states’ national existence and their nationalism. Multiethnicity grew in Japan as a result of globalization. By 2005, foreign workers made up 1.57% of the total population in Japan. This represented a 47.7% increase in foreign residents in the nation within a period of 10 years prior to collection of statistics. The largest population of migrant workers in Japan consists Koreans at 29.8% alone – a population which has been on the decline (Takeuchi, 2006). Other foreigners in Japan consist people from China, Brazil, Philipines, Peru, and the USA (Ministry of Justice Immigration Bureau, 2005). The Japanese people are greatly self-aware of their rich historical culture and nationality. For many, Japan’s deep fascination for culture and history render it the perfect place for studying mankind. Strong nationalism in Japan grows from the people’s consciousness of being Japanese. This strong nationalism is adopted by firms which have over the years successfully managed to convince the public that imported products are mostly inferior and unsuitable for their local lifestyles and habits. To the extreme, the firms hold that the imported products are likely to cause death. As a result, the Japanese are more loyal customers to their products even though they may be expensive in comparison to foreign products. This makes up one of the reasons why the Japanese market is one of the most difficult for foreign direct investors to get into.

In 1991, a recession resulted in unemployment and people started looking for products which are cheap and imported in the market as a result of few exports and many imports (Bucknall, 2004). This incidence resulted in the setting up of foreign companies and the opening of cash-and-carry stores in Japan. The arrival of firms like BSE in 2001, into the Japanese market resulted in vigorous seeking of foreign beef. Eventually, the old habits of Japanese consumers diminished, especially the attitude of buying the best at any relative price. This change is buying attitudes is documented in consumer magazines which show how the public once focused on buying the best products in stores. At a certain point in time, the Japanese only bought the best in store, but recent rolled out articles provide information on how customers can buy products cheaply.

National Cultural Practices in Japan

The Shinto

The Japanese tradition is basically founded on the Shinto, a mysterious double-sided phenomenon. In some studies, the Shinto is related to Confucianism and Buddhism. It arose in the 18th century (Teasdale, 1999). Even though the Shinto is dwindling it remains a crucial part of the root of the culture in Japan. For instance, there is the Shinto ethics which is inherent to an individual’s social responsibility. The Shinto ethics also insists on the inseparability of an individual’s status from the community. Apart from social responsibility, an individual is responsible towards heaven and their community and great virtue was presented in the ability to carry out the responsibility. In addition, there is the Shinto Etiquette. This is representative of the hierarchical nature and strict etiquette that exist in the culture of the Japanese. The Shinto etiquette represents the traditional behavioral rules which given interpersonal relationships through time. Shinto etiquette is practiced through activities like handshaking, bowing, gift giving and seat arrangement. The Keigo is a good example of Shinto etiquette (Teasdale, 1999). The Keigo is an example of a humble language which is honorific and is well part of the daily conversation in the Japanese culture. There are different degrees of the Keigo and they are used as per the age, gender and social status of people in an interaction. In some cases, the individual of lower status in a conversation is obligated to praise the other person they are conversing with. The other speaker, who is considered to be of high status can humble themselves by choosing to speak in a low tone or use a humble speech. A mystery in the Japanese tradition, the keigo is greatly valued for setting up strict etiquette and social order in Japan. Shinto aesthetics is the part of Japanese culture which is focused on aesthetics. In every day of life, the Japanese move with a graceful air. The beauty of their movements and actions is not only a good example of self-respect, but also exudes aesthetic gratification thus extending respect to everyone else. Every day, people are faced with aesthetics in Japan in places they walk and while opening sliding doors. The daily life aesthetics c=blend into the classical art developing a mosaic rich in beauty that is prevalent across the Japanese society. Aesthetics can be seen from an ordinary piece of wood block to any random act of serving food. Daily aesthetics is emphasized and used together with other practices of Shinto eventually developing a society that is rich in culture and has pride, respect and honor to the people.

Household organization in Japanese culture grows from the social obligations of the Shinto. As a result, there is great significance accorded to household organization in Japan. Notably, the household organization is the most basic type of social organization among warriors, merchants and farmers in Japan. Traditionally, etiquette in the shinto is directed towards to a male superior. The household is traditionally the primary unit of society in Japan which depends on shared resources that revolve on a common identity. Homage is paid to elders who are deceased and honoring them never stops, as it is done over the ages through the act of ancestral worship. From the Japanese perspective, ancestral worship is part of the history of a household and lays foundation to the family-oriented mentality which is strong and remarkably portrayed by modern families. The stable foundation consists the following three building blocks; loyalty, paternalism and familism (Teasdale, 1999). Many dimensions of human behaviour are affected by the cultural factor (Rinuatsi, et al., 2014). The following are some of the national cultural practices in Japan.

Appearance (Process) versus Bottom Line (Result)

The Japanese business culture lays more significance on the actual processes involved than the end results. For instance, in a tea ceremony which is ritualistic in nature, many foreigners will observe that a complex procedure is involved. A participant of the ceremony has to receive the tea bowl in a manner which is proper turn it carefully in their hand, drink the tea with slow and deliberate movements and return the bowl to its original position in a way which is deemed acceptable. A short period of close observation is followed by a complement of the classic craftsmanship on the tea bowl (Ford & Honeycutt, 1992). Foreigners get to learn quite a lot from the processes in the tea ceremony. What is given more priority is the process rather than the satisfaction one acquires from drinking tea. To many foreigners, the tea, in actual sense, has a bitter taste because it is made using green tea leaves which are strong. The bitterness makes many foreigners wonder whether the tea is worthy to wait for, eventually, their impatience leads them to lose out on the real essence of the ritual being performed.

Conformity (Community) Versus Entrepreneuralism (Self)

The Japanese people have a strong will to conform. Conformity is taught in culture (Bucknall, 2004). Many Japanese hold the belief that distancing oneself from the group is something dangerous to do. People are highly encouraged to do what everyone else is doing. There even exists a Japanese folk-proverb that “it is the nail that stands up that always gets hammered down.” For example, it would be a great mistake to get a Japanese individual to behave in a manner which makes them stand out in a crowd. In most cases, they will not comply and their efforts to comply will leave them feeling awkward to the extreme of showing resentment to whoever may be coercing them. Berglund (2004) also comments on another culture of the Japanese people; they are highly conscious of the kind of impression they make on other people and are less inclined to judge what other people think about them. At the base of Japan’s national culture is the focus on protecting and preserving the whole society. Genetically, Japanese can be considered to be proud people. When compared to other socities in the West, such as American society, the Japanese stand out with the pride they hold for their blodd-lines. American society may take pride in providing equal opportunities to everyone, but this is not the case with the Japanese. Any foreigner in Japan will be refered to according to their actual status – an outside (gaijin). The term gaijin stands among the Japanese because they hold high pride in their uniqueness. Their pride, it is believed, will diminish when they accept an outsider into their culture (Ford & Honeycutt, 1992). For example, in television, a visitor in a Japanese game show on television, whose appearance consists blue eyes and blonde hair and tries to speak fluent Japanese will still be regarded as a gaijin. Some of these visitoes could be children to missionaries who lived life in Japan, thus, they may have grown up encultured to write and read Japanese in a fluent manner. From the Japanese point of view, these visitors are an oddity and whenever they talk in public, the audience is less likely to take them serious by bursting into laughter. These visitors could have learned the ways of the Japanese and be able to speak their language but it remains evident that they can never be considered as Japanese (Ford & Honeycutt, 1992). In fact, expatriate westerners that have made effort to be Japanese have ended up losing their status. When foreigners lose their western identity to gain a Japanese one, they lose the respect held to them by the Japanese.

Structure (Hierarchy) Versus Free Form (Disarray)

This national cultural practice illustrates the manner I which the Japanese society is highly structured. In Japan, there is a fine determination of ranks to the extent that equality is less likely to be found. Everything and everyone is placed in their position. For instance, workmates, companies, schools, and members of a family are all assigned their positions. This structuralization of society developed back in the 5th century. Confucianism was being imported from Japan to China. According to teachings by Confucius, there was a need to show respect towards elders and superior members in a group. This respect was a moral necessity and had an effect on structuring the Japanese society during the feudal period. Structuring in Japan’s society is also evident in the kind of language used. When speaking to a superior, a familiar tone is discouraged and high levels of respect ought to be shown every time.Whenever an individual has no clue of another’s status, they ought to begin a conversation from a conservative point by making the assumption that another individual is superior. Status in the society is also seen through the act of bowing. Bowing is usually done from an inferior individual towards one who is more superior (Ford & Honeycutt, 1992). It is customary and the behaviour of bowing is part of cultural imperatives in Japanese culture. This means that particular actions, like the removal of shoes in the home of a Japanese, are an illustration of respect towards the hosts and need to be done frequently to avoid letting another person take offense.

With reference to Hofstede’s model of cultural dimensions, this national cultural practice places the Japanese society under the category of strong power distance. This is further illustrated by the Japanese respect for law and order. There are clear stipulations of behaviors which are acceptable and those which are unacceptable in the Japanese society (Ford & Honeycutt, 1992). These responsibilities are illustrated in the basic unit of an extended family, and they are serious responsibilities which ought not to be taken on a light note.

Japanese National Culture Affecting Toyota’s Organizational Culture

Many studies reiterate that it is not until recently that the Japanese culture has become open to influence from foreign culture. Despite this openness, the Japanese culture has remained highly resilient with people sticking to their most ancient ways of life and being able to juxtapose it with the modern technological world. As a result, westernism has some partial influence in the Japanese national culture. National culture, in general, is contagious in the manner that is determines the business climate (Ford & Honeycutt, 1992). It guides the national ideology in a manner which influences the way members of a society perceive the role of a business as well as the strength it holds in showing the culture’s identity. The resilience of the Japanese culture, as explained by Hite & Hawes (1991), is the reason why the nation has had the most dramatic developments in its economy, especially considering that there was high pessimism that the nation’s economy would make remarkable achievements after the second World War. Inspite of critical scarcity of capital and few raw materials, the nation beat all odds by being able to rebuild its economy and expand its industrial capacity. This rapid recovery in its economy, and rise to being the third biggest national market is attributed to oits cultural dynamics (Hite & Hawes, 1991).

Bibliography

Adhikari, R., 2005. National Factors and Employment Relations in Japan, Tokyo: s.n.

Batyko, R., 2012. The Impact of Japanese Corporate anCountry Culture on Crisis Communications: A Case Study Examining Tokyo Electric Power Company, s.l.: s.n.

Bucknall, K., 2004. The Most Important Elements in Japanese Culture, Especially Those Doing Business with Japan.

Ford, J. & Honeycutt, E., 1992. Japanese national Culture as a Basis for Understanding Japanese Business Practices. Business Horizons.

Hite, R. & Hawes, J., 1991. Understanding The Japanese Culture For Business Success. Journal of Managerial Issues, 3(1), pp. 31-45.

Hofstede, G., 2011. Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context. Unit 2 Theoretical and Methodological Issues, 2(1).

Rinuatsi, H., Hadiwidjodjo, D., Rohman, F. & Khusniyah, N., 2014. Measuring Hofstede‟s Five Cultural Dimensions at Individual Level and Its Application to Researchers in Tourists‟ Behaviors. International Business Research, 7(12).

Spector, P., Cary, C. L. & Kate, S., 2001. An International Study of the Psychometric Properties of the Hofstede Values Survey Module 1994: A Comparison of Individual and Country/Province Level Results. Applied Psychology, 50(2), pp. 269-281.

Takeuchi, M., 2006. The Reinforcement of Cultural Nationalism in Japan: An Investigation of Japaneseness and"the Notebook for the Heart", s.l.: s.n.

Yoo, B., Donthu, N. & Lenartowiez, T., 2011. Measuring Hofstede's Five Dimensions of Cultural Values at the Individual Level: Development and Validation of CVSCALE. Journal of International Consumer Marketing.