Exploring Theories in Teaching and Learning

Analyse theories, principles and models of learning

There are many teaching and learning theories, principles and models, which are based on ideas, thoughts, experiences and research over many years. I will briefly analyse some of the theories.

Behaviourism is a learning theory, based on the idea that, the learner will be shaped through positive or negative reinforcement. Learning is, therefore, measured by a change in behaviour, which is modified by external influences or conditions.

Skinner (1974) believed that, ‘behaviour is a function of its consequences, i.e. learners will repeat the desired behaviour if positive reinforcement is given. The behaviour should not be repeated if negative feedback is given. Giving immediate feedback, whether positive or negative, should enable your learners to behave in a certain way’ Gravells A (2017). According to Skinner (1948), every individual starts off with a ‘clean’ slate. Skinner (1948) conducted experiments using animals, which he placed in a ‘Skinner Box’. He identified three types of responses, which can follow the behaviour:

Neutral operant

Reinforces

Punishers

Pavlov’s theory, which is based on ‘classical conditioning’, involves learning to associate an unconditioned stimulus, which already brings a particular response with a new stimulus, so that the new stimulus can bring the same response. Pavlov discovered that, conditioned behaviour would disappear if they failed to deliver the expected outcome.

Humanism theory is a pedagogical approach, which believes that, learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfil one’s potential. Abraham Maslow, a leading humanist theorist, introduced the term ‘self-actualisation’, which refers to the desire for self-fulfilment. Maslow created the ‘Hierarchy of Needs’ theory (1943), which is a motivational theory in psychology compromising a five-tier model of human needs, often represents as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.

Another theorist is Carl Roger, who made famous the term “self-concept”. He agreed with Abraham Maslow; however, he stressed the importance of genuineness, acceptance and empathy. Without these healthy personalities will not develop as they should.

Carl Rogers (1959) believed that, humans have one basic motive that is the tendency to self-actualise. For a person to achieve self-actualisation, Rogers believed that, they must be in a state of congruence. Congruence is when the self-imagine and ideal self are close to each other and consistent. If the person is congruent, then there is a possibility to achieve a state of self-actualisation. This can have a great impact on a person’s personality development.

Cognitivism theory focuses on how we think and solve problems to gain new knowledge. New knowledge is built upon prior knowledge and learners’ need active participation in order to learn. Cognitivism view the learner as an ‘active participant in the learning process’. Jean Piaget (1896-1980) developed a four-stage model of how the mind processes new information. The four stages are: Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational stage, Concrete operations, Formal operations.

Sensorimotor stage starts from birth to two years old. The infant builds an understanding through the five senses; taste, smell, touch, sound and sight. The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short period of time and involves a great deal of growth. The Preoperational stage occurs between the ages of 2 to 7 years old. Children start to learn to use the words and pictures to represent the objects. Concrete stage takes place between 7-11 years old. During this stage, the children begin to think logically, about events and understand the concept of conversation. The Formal operation takes place from 12 years and lasts through adulthood. Logical and abstract thinking ability develops during this stage.

Experiential learning theory is the process of learning through experiences. This learning style was published by David Kolb (1984). The theory was concerned with the learner’s internal cognitive process. Kolb states “Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 38).

Kolb’s experiential theory is represented by a four-stage learning cycle, in which the learner ‘touches all the bases. Concrete experience – a new experience is encountered. Reflective observation of the New Experience – Reviewing the new experience. Abstract Conceptualisation – Learning from the new experience and finally Active Experimentation – applying what has been learnt.

Explain ways in which theories, principles and models of learning can be applied to teaching, learning and assessment.

I apply a variety of motivational theories in my teaching, learning and assessment. The two most relevant theories that I apply in my Maths class are behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism theory. Behaviourism is explained through the following example. I start my Maths lesson by explaining and demonstrating an algebraic equation 3a + 4b = 18. The learners listen attentively and pay attention. I ask the learners to apply the rules and practice a few more examples. Those, that have answered the questions correctly, are rewarded and those who made mistakes were given more examples to fully understand. The reward system was very effective. The learners received merits, when completing the tasks. This motivated them to work harder and progress further. Skinners theory (1904 – 1990) - Operant conditioning shows that, changing behaviour by manipulating its consequences reinforces the desired behaviour. For example, when I walk around the classroom to check on learner’s progress, I catch them doing well and reward them with ‘merits’ or give them verbal praise. This has proven to be very effective. Bruner (1960) proposed the ‘Spiral Approach’ and this approach is very effective in my teaching, learning and assessment. Complex topics are taught at a simplified level first, for example, learning basics fractions such as improper fractions, adding and subtracting fractions with the same denominator. Later the topic is revisited at a more complex level, for example multiplying and dividing fractions then doing complex word problems using different operations. This approach leads the learners to solve the problems by themselves.

I have different types of learners in my class. I conduct initial diagnostic tests at the beginning of the year and set targets according to their ability. Formal assessment is also done throughout the year to check on learner’s progress. Another form of effective assessment is peer and self-assessment. This encourages reflection and purposeful activity towards their targets. It also encourages the learners to become responsible for their own learning. Kolb (1984) proposed a four-stage cycle of learning. Under which, one of the stages was Observation and reflection. This stage allowed the learners to take a step back from the task at hand and review what they have done. It then allows the learner to plan how they might carry out the task differently.

Analyse models of learning preferences

Models of Learning styles are used to investigate the learner’s preferences. It helps the learner to understand and realise what kind of preference, strategies and learning style is required to develop and put in practice to become more successful. Neil Flemings’ VARK model (1987) is one of the most popular representations of learning preferences. This model gives the teacher and the learner a full description of the learner’s strengths and weaknesses of their learning styles. VARK stands for visual, aural, read/write and kinaesthetic.

Visual learners prefer graphs, charts, posters, flow charts, underlining and textbook with pictures. Aural learners learn best, when the information is spoken. They process information by talking and having in depth discussions. Read/write learners process information by writing notes. They are good spellers, enjoy writing essays and like to read the books. Kinaesthetic leaners prefer practical activities. They like to carry out tasks by doing research, using computers, partaking in role-plays and puzzles.

Explain how identifying and taking account of learners’ individual learning preferences enables inclusive teaching, learning and assessment

Learners prefer to learn in different ways. What suits one learner may not suit for others. At the beginning of the academic year I will start off with an initial assessment and set targets. I will then conduct an assessment to assess the learners learning preferences through VARK. Once I have found out the learner’s preferences, I can adapt my teaching and learning approaches to suit them. This process will help me further to include all the learners. As I teach maths, homework is a very important part of their studies. I use ‘Hegarty Maths’ on the computer every week. In order to make sure that, all my learners understand the homework where I use different approaches. The visual learners watch a demonstration/video of how to use the app. Aural learners listen to the instructions and ask questions. The read/write learners’ make notes and are given hand-outs on how to sign up and use the app. As for the kinaesthetic learners, they are given an opportunity to use a computer to learn how to use the app. These different approaches help to make my teaching and learning inclusive. In my lessons, I use differentiation to ensure that, inclusive teaching and learning is taking place. My lesson plans as specific and cater for all learning preferences. I use differentiated worksheets/hand-outs, textbooks, power points, videos and visuals. In order to make my assessments inclusive, I provide flexibility to my learners and how I assess them. For example, end of unit assessments is not always done through the test papers, where I vary my styles. Some assessments are completed on a PowerPoint. I design tasks, which include smaller formative steps, to prepare learners for the final summative assessment. For example, I would provide opportunities for the learners to practice exams through multiple choice questions, quizzes, open/closed questions, group presentations, self and peer assessments. A variety of assessment methods will ensure that, specific forms of assessment do not disadvantage learners.

Explain ways in which theories, principles and models of communication can be applied to teaching, learning and assessment.

Strong communication skills are vital for teaching and learning. The two most effective forms are verbal and non-verbal communication.

Verbal communication is a process of sharing information.

Non-verbal communication includes body language, facial expression and eye contact and appearance. Body language is important to the way the learner reads you. I often use hand gestures to make a point, for example, to give a message or to stop learners from shouting. If a learner, who speaks very quietly, is asked to explain a question, I would move closer to them so that I can hear properly and assess that, they have fully understood the task. Eye contact is used to look around the classroom and gain the learner’s trust as well as their attention. This is a very important non-verbal skill. During the lesson, it is important to look around the classroom to see if the learners are completing their task, talking to their peers or getting distracted. I can then assess whether the leaner needs help or is simply getting distracted or if the work needs to be more challenging. Smiling to give the learners approval of their work is also a very effective communication method as it encourages positive behaviour and motivates the learners for better performance.

Written communication is sending or receiving information through writing. For example, giving out assessments to test the learner’s knowledge or giving out worksheets with the task written down. Eric Berne (1950)’s transactional analysis theory is a method of analysing communication between two people. Berne (1950)’s believed that, people had three identities; The parent, the adult and the child. He believed that it was important to understand and identify when the three different stages were being used. When the person understands which stage is taking place in different life transactions, they know what reaction their behaviour is based on.

Explain ways in which theories, principles and models of assessment can be applied in assessing learning.

Diagnostic assessment usually takes place at the beginning of the year. It allows the teacher to identify the learner’s current knowledge of a subject, their weaknesses and strengths. Once these are identified, the teachers are able to make better plan about what to teach and how to teach. Diagnostic is mainly used to diagnose learners with difficulties. This can help the teacher to develop guided lessons and curriculum for special needs leaners. Formative assessment enables the teacher how best to help the learner through formal and informal assessments. There are different ways of assessing the learner. Examples of formal and informal assessment methods that I use in my lessons are: assignments, multiple-choice questions, observations, discussions, written questions, peer and self-assessment, quizzes, worksheets and workbooks. Formative assessment takes place throughout the academic year and is an on-going progress. Formative assessments facilitate learning and see whether learning is taking place. It also helps the teacher to give feedback to the learners regarding their progress, clarifying what needs to be improved and how to enhance their learning skill and capabilities. Once the learner’s needs are diagnosed, it is easier to modify the lesson plans. Summative assessment usually occurs at the end of the topic, unit or academic year. It takes place in the form of termly assessments or end of year exams. Summative assessment is used to find out what the learner has achieved during the course. It is a formal process of recording achievement. ‘Teachers and students viewed assessment as ‘meeting the requirements’ and not about deepening their learning’ Ecclestone (002) p.167

Explain ways in which theories and models of curriculum development can be applied in developing curricula in own area of specialism.

The purpose of a curriculum development is to plan a systematic process to create improvements in the education system. Teachers amend the curriculum in order to meet a variety of learning needs in their class. Learners who have special needs will most likely need the curriculum amended on an individual basis. There are many models, which affects the curriculum development. For example, the product model, which is also referred to as the behavioural objectives model, mainly focuses on the end product such as an exam. A teacher has to teach what must be taught in order to pass the exam. Therefore, teaching and learning is limited to meeting the objective. Ralph Tyler (1949) stated that there is a guideline for curriculum development. He believed that, four questions must be answered when planning the curriculum:

What are the aims and objectives?

What learning experiences meet the aims and objectives?

How can the aims and objectives be evaluated?

How can these learning experiences be evaluated?

Tyler believes that, the best curriculum objectives that meet the needs and interests of the learners are the best curriculum. Tyler states, “the important thing is for students to discover content that is useful and meaningful to them” (Meek, 1993, p. 83).

Having clear objectives also benefits the teacher, as it would give them a clear understanding of how well the learners are performing and solidifying their understanding. It is important that the leaners retain and apply the knowledge learnt. In order for this to happen Schemes of work (SOW) and Long-term plans (LTP) are devised from the curriculum. This helps the teacher to present a good lesson that will not only help learners reach their set targets but also for the teacher to analyse their teaching. Overall Tyler’s model is designed to show if the objectives and goals have been attained. However, behaviour factor can have an impact on the objective, as it is unpredictable. This model is more student centred; the teachers are not given the chance to manipulate the learning experiences to bring about the desired learning outcome. Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) focuses on the learner’s activities and the condition in which learning takes place. The atmosphere is more relaxed, and the learner is able to make his or her own responses to the learning experiences. Other factors that can have an effect on the curriculum development are political, economic and social factors. Political factors influence the curriculum development by their ability to determine what will be taught, what textbooks will be used and who will be hired to teach. Economic factors such as funding can have an impact on the curriculum. Lack of funding will result in lack of resources, therefore affecting the curriculum, which will then need to be amended accordingly. Social factor that may have an impact on the curriculum is the cultural factor. Working at a faith independent school, certain subjects may go against the school’s ethos, therefore not being taught to the full extent. This can have an effect on the curriculum and changes will be needed according to what can be taught.

Explain ways in which theories and models of reflection and evaluation can be applied to reviewing own practice.

Donald Schon (1991)’s theory talks about reflection in action and reflection on action. Reflection in action is to reflect on behaviour, such as noticing that, the learners are not understanding the work therefore getting distracted and disrupting the class. Action is taken there and then and the teacher can decide to take the following actions: stop the class and do a quick quiz to remind the learners how to complete a task, change the seating if the learners are very disruptive, change the activity to gain the attention of the learners and to get them focused on the task at hand. Reflecting on action is to reflect after the lesson, such as reviewing, analysing and evaluating the lesson. What went well and what could have been improved? For example, the learners find a topic very challenging. The teacher can reflect on this and think of different strategies or resources to use in order to demonstrate the work for the learners to retain the information. More differentiated worksheets can be given next lesson to reinforce the strategies learnt in previous lessons or an extra lesson to consolidate the learning. If the class was disruptive, then I will amend my next lesson plan by adding a power point to motivate and engage the learners.

Graham Gibbs developed Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle in 1988. It allowed the teacher to learn and plan from things that either went well or didn’t go well. It covers 6 stages:

Description

Feelings

Evaluation

Analysis

Conclusion

Action plan

An example of this model, which I used to reflect and evaluate my lesson, is when I introduced a new topic in Maths. I intended to complete a plenary at the end to ensure that all learners understood the new topic. However, some learners had difficulty in understanding the first part of the lesson. Some learners took longer to pick up new strategies quickly and needed more time to practice. This took up a lot more class time and the more able learners were not challenged. After analysing the situation, I realised that, when introducing a completely new topic, I should allow more lesson time and do more group/pair activities. I would talk to the learners about what strengths they have and how these skills can be applied.