Formal vs. Non-formal Coaching

1. Definition of terms (formal, non-formal)

Formal

According to Mallett et al. (2009), a formal coaching education is a learning confined to class- or institution-based, graded and with structured curriculum. The candidates are required to follow the course format, standardized curricula and award of certification upon successful completion of the course.

Non-formal

In this context, non-formal coaching is a systematically organized learning activities undertaken on the concept but not same framework as formal education. The learning process is provided only to selected members of the groups such as high performing coaches. For example, the learner attends conferences, seminars, and workshops to supplement their coaching skills (Nelson & Potrac, 2006). Normally the courses are short and precisely oriented.

Informal

In this form of learning, the person acquires and progressively accumulate skills, knowledge and insightful understanding from daily coaching exposure and experience. The learning occurs in a wider perspective beyond formal institution-based (Mallett et al., 2009). The learners gain the required skills through various avenues including previous experience as an athlete, practical coaching experience, mentoring and direct or indirect interaction with athletes and peer coaches.

2. Pros and cons of formal coach education as a method of development (critical discussion)

Pros

Normally, if the course contents are properly formulated, they are accurate, informative and up-to-date. The learner obtains more than a just basic understanding of the sport, but mostly he/she engage and put into practice what is covered (Cushion, 2010). Furthermore, they can accommodate sporting styles, principles, and theories concurrently enabling a wider perspective at any occasion.

Moreover, the coaches who obtain their skills through formal education are more adaptive to the environment once they start coaching (Mallett, 2009). The individual is equipped with a theoretical and practical aspect of the sport, which can be applicable to any environment. The sheer number of coaches learning through formal education makes the coordination easier during mentoring.

Cons.

In the formal learning, the learners are limited to the scope of the achievement. As Cushion (2003) et al. contended, the system assumes the coaches are empty vessels waiting to be filled with tactical, technical and bio-scientific information pertaining the sport. It follows that coaching is a sequence to be learned by technicians and then transferred to the future generation. In writing Piggott acknowledges the lack of correlation between the course content and experience of the coach.

For large scale professional coaches, the formal learning has been found to be ineffective in the provision of the necessary skills to be a successful coach. The research has criticized the theoretical approach adopted by the system without outlining the way learners conceptualize the education, with some coaches describing it as training or indoctrination rather than education (Jones & Kingston, 2013). In a recent study by Nelson et al. (2011) they highlighted the frustration by coaches at having little or no influence on the contents of the coaching education, where most termed it as inefficient time-limited and too basic (Vargas-tossing 2007).

3. Characteristics of formal coach education?

Social Learning

In a social perspective, formal coach education is characterized by an institutionalized form of learning, where the learners attend classes and a specified culture is maintained (Mallet, 2009). The trainees are expected to precisely follow what is taught and practiced during and after the education process. Objectives, goals, and policies are stipulated which are measured in regards to knowledge, skills, and attitude changes at the end of the course; such as ‘what learners intend to have achieve after successful completion of the course’. Tutor facilitates the learning process, and at which he/she examines the understanding of concept at end of the course.

The Internal Learning

The basis of formal coaching education is a structured curriculum assembled by or in consultation with experts in the respective fields such as professional coaches, academic professionals, and researchers (Nelson et al., 2006). An established curriculum sets out the learning objectives and goals of the course, and how they are achieved in regards to the activities and topics to be covered. The contexts of the courses are described in a training guide, notes, books, handouts, demo videos, and interactive tutorials.

External feedback

The assessment is administered at the end of the course to determine whether the learning objectives and goals have been achieved. Either a practical exercise or examination is undertaken at the end to certify qualification of the learner (Mallett et al., 2009). The activities of formal coaching activities are governed by professional bodies, which act as oversight agencies that oversee teaching and courses undertaken.

4. What would be a better way to develop (mentoring, apprenticeships, competency based approach etc...)

Coaching and cpd, university degree courses?

An important step towards providing efficient and effective coaching skills is planning. A plan provides a direction, goals, and aims, of the program which should be consistent with the coaching education (Nelson et al., 2012). The best provision of such is by a qualified personnel in the respective fields such as researchers and professor who have intensive knowledge in sporting theories and its practicality.

What do they offer and how are they beneficial

University coaching programs are extensive covering wide aspects of sport coaching. The programs such as Cognitive Behavioral Coaching (CBC) and Neuro Linguistic programming enables an in-depth understanding of the psychological dimension of an athlete (Nelson et al., 2012). Further, BSc sports performance and coaching integrate the concept of science to improve and advance the functionality of the athlete body. Having a comprehensive and insightful knowledge of the science is ideal for every coach not only for the physical prospect but also for the psychological need of the trainee. In addition to gaining practical experience for new aspiring coaches, enhancement of coaching knowledge and skills is achieved through studying; strength and conditioning, training and coaching techniques, performance analysis, exercise programming and methods of assessing the sports teams and athletes’ fitness.

Use literature to discuss this and use examples

In writing, Gilbert and Trudel (2006) contended that coaching is mostly based on experiences and the interpretation of those experiences. The coaching practices are guided primarily by sports culture, circumstance and external authorities (Nelson, 2014). Recently, as described by Nelson (2014), the coaching fraternity is reflecting on its progressive nature by asking a question such as; ‘what are the implication of decisions made in coaching and coach education?’ this outlines teaching as the pre-defined skills and knowledge and fostering athlete-centered coaching for performance improvement. This situation has allowed scholars, researchers and professors to experiment, apply and thereafter implement the best delivery approaches, while at the same time present an alternative coaching framework.

Example.

Swimming acts a great example where the mentor-mentee scenario is applicable. The trainer entirely determines the entry, interaction, and performance of the swimmers. In this case, the trainee adheres to a schedule such as the maximum time submerged in water set by the coach.

Mentoring can help improve development

Zehntner and McMahon (2013) in the research investigating the mentor-mentee relationship in swimming environment concluded that the techniques acquired had and continued to have a profound impact on mentee (trainee) on personal and professional levels as a coach. Furthermore, another study by McQuade et al. (2015) suggested mentoring as a development tool to connect the sporting theories and practice. Therefore, the process of guided learning enables the learner to fast track the process in sports field where coaches face different context and problems, enabling the individual to adopt and explore problem-solving approach.

5. Recommendations for improved coach development

Brinkerhoff’s six-stage model (1987) formulates two training criteria; training must provide changes with efficiency and efficacy and secondly, if the training does not become beneficial to the individual or organization, then it is not worth having. The primary reason for reflection is for personal development and improvement.

Tania et al. (2009) described as a process that helps turn sports experience into knowledge involving thoughtfully exploitation of concepts. It is a cognitive process linking the coach’s skills, knowledge and sports practice. According to Anderson et al. (2004) described reflection as the form of knowledge based on what the coach does and reflected in how he/she acts; it involves coach experiences, values, and crafted knowledge.

Reflection enhances daily activities and performances of coaches by providing a linkage between their knowledge and applicability of the same in sports practice. According to Cassidy et al. (2004), through the reflection of values and beliefs, the coach becomes more subtle with his/her athletes’ background and needs. Having a more inclusive relationship with the team, the coach can improve his/her coaching practices.

Although reflection tends to have a positive effect on coach’s practice, its principles, which need to be adhered to are a major shortcoming (McQuire et al., 2015). For instance, for a reflective conversation to occur between a coach and mentee, some conditions must be met including questioning of values and taking questioning approach. Furthermore, access to mentor and coaches during different stages of learning are other limiting factors.

Unlike stipulated approach on reflection, taking a more proactive and inclusive approach involving occasional tale of adaptability will provide more improvement on both personal and team performance (Zehntner & McMahon, 2013). Furthermore, in-depth and timely reflection like taking a critical observation on the previous training session and noting the aspect to improve in the next session will enhance interpersonal relation between the coach and athlete or team members.

Reference

Camiré, M., Trudel, P., & Forneris, T. (2012). Examining how model youth sport coaches learn to facilitate positive youth development. Physical Education And Sport Pedagogy, 19(1), 1-17.

Cassidy, T., Jones, R., & Potrac, P. (2009). Understanding sports coaching (2nd Ed). Oxon: Routledge.

Clutterbuck, D. (2010). Coaching reflection: the liberated coach. Coaching: An International Journal Of Theory, Research And Practice, 3(1), 73-81.

Cushion, C., Armour, K., & Jones, R. (2003). Coach Education and Continuing Professional Development: Experience and Learning to Coach. Quest, 55(3), 215-230.

Gilbert, W. & Trudel, P. (2006) The coach as a reflective practitioner, in: R. L. Jones (Ed.) The sports coach as educator: re-conceptualising sports coaching (London, Routledge), 114127.

Jones, R., & Kingston, K. (2013). An introduction to sports coaching. Connecting theory to practice (2nd Ed). Oxon: Routledge.

Lyle, J., & Cushion, C. (2010). Sports coaching. Professionalisation and practice. London: Churchill Livingstone, Elsivier.

Lyle, J., & Cushion, C. (2017). Sports coaching concepts. A framework for coaching practice (2nd Ed). Oxon: Routledge.

Mallett, C., Trudel, P., Lyle, J., & Rynne, S. (2009). Formal vs. Informal Coach Education. International Journal Of Sports Science And Coaching, 4(3), 325-364.

McQuade, S., Davis, L., & Nash, C. (2015). Positioning Mentoring as a Coach Development Tool: Recommendations for Future Practice and Research. Quest, 67(3), 317-329.

Nelson, L., Cushion, C., & Potrac, P. (2006). Formal, Nonformal and Informal Coach Learning: A Holistic Conceptualisation. International Journal Of Sports Science And Coaching, 1(3), 247-259.

Nelson, L., Cushion, C., & Potrac, P. (2012). Enhancing the provision of coach education: the recommendations of UK coaching practitioners. Physical Education & Sport Pedagogy, 18(2), 204-218.

Nelson, L., Cushion, C., Potrac, P., & Groom, R. (2012). Carl Rogers, learning and educational practice: critical considerations and applications in sports coaching. Sport, Education And Society, 19(5), 513-531.

Piggott, D. (2012). Coaches' experiences of formal coach education: a critical sociological investigation. Sport, Education And Society, 17(4), 535-554.

Zehntner, C. & McMahon, J. (2013). Mentoring in coaching: the means of correct training? An autoethnographic exploration of one Australian swimming coach’s experiences. Qualitative Research In Sport, Exercise And Health, 6(4), 596-616.