Impact of Oil Spills on Ecosystems

I. Introduction

a) Leading to Research Question

The present study will analyze the Exxon Valdez Accident and the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and the cleanup trends at the marine environments in 1989 and 2010. The study has also looked at the various causes of the oil spills where the majority have been identified to be as a result of human negligence. Some of the most employed cleanup methods are application f booms and skimmers due to a commonality of the type of accident and environ. Furthermore, there is a development of alternative approaches of cleanup strategies combined with technological with the past successful cleanup methods. These oil spills will also identify how they have affected the ecosystem with extensive detrimental of habitats and animal species.

b) Oil Spills and its Causes

Oil spills include spills of crude oil or distilled oil products such as jet fuels, diesel, gasoline, hydraulic oils, kerosene, lubricating oils and Stoddard solvent that have the capability to pollute water surface and air environments. Oil spills comprise of a variety of quantity beginning with a gallon of oil to millions and hundreds of millions of gallon spills that are commonly connected to shorelines of oceans and seas [1].

Oil spills could be accidental or intentional basically ascribed to physical anthropogenic functions. For several years now, several oil spills cases have been identified and have adversely affected societies, marine, and economic environments [1]. Some of the adverse cases of oil spills include the Exxon Valdez accident in Alaska that dispensed at least eleven million tons of crude oil. There was the Deep Blue Horizon disaster in the Gulf of Mexico, the gulf war oil spill that released two hundred and forty million gallons of oil into the sea and finally the Atlantic Express oil spill by the Greek tanker.

The severity of oil spills basically is determined by decrying its influence on the society and marine. For instance, the Persian Gulf oil spill during the gulf war was the largest and the most severe natural disaster with a large number of crude oil gallons being spread across the sea. Oil slowly spread along the coastline leading to contamination of seashore, degradation of water quality consequently leading to loss of large marine species [2]. The case of the Exxon Valdez accident, a tanker ran aground on the Prince William Sound discharging at least eleven millions of gallons of crude oil covering a distance of three thousand, three hundred and sixty-six kilometers. The crude oil affected various ecosystems such as the local marine, wiped out seabirds, eliminated native marine mammals and covered some birds’ fur that resulted to hypothermia and consequently led to death as some of the birds only endured if they maintained only clean fur.

The exploration, production as well as consumption of oil and its products are accumulating across the world, and the threat of oil spills and pollution are becoming larger accordingly [2]. The transfer of petroleum from oil fields to the consumer involves as several as ten to fifteen transfers between several various modes of transportation that includes pipelines, tankers, tank trucks, and railcars. Bearing in mind of such transfer modes, there are two causes of oil spills and they include anthropogenic or natural causes.

Beginning with anthropogenic causes, they include accidental spills such as the Gulf of Mexico not leaving out the spills and leaks caused by human interference during oil handling, refining, storage, transportation and application of its distilled products [3]. Therefore, it is clear that the majority of causes for oil spills and an array of methods the oil could be spilled happen.

Natural causes of oil spills include oils that seep from the bottom of the seas that penetrates the marine environment. Through natural processes, crude oil is formed over a long period of time that entails organic matter originating from dead organic matter. So, oil can be present in several environs and may be naturally spilled due to factors such as disturbance, climatic condition, and many others [3]. These natural oil spills take place in oceans specifically at the bottom of the sea due to an erosion of sedimentary rocks resulting to effect similar to that of drilling such as the current spill of the Gulf of Mexico.

While several natural and anthropogenic causes of oil spill pollution clinch the kind as well as the quantity o oil; spilled, and the place the oil has been spilled, the kind of oil being spilled pollution of vital for the transport and fate of the spilled oil as well as its influence on the environment and human. For instance, hasty oil overflows associating with large quantity of thousands and millions of gallons originating from accident at offshore drills or failure of oil tanker, could result to calamitous effect originating from heightened concentrations of discharges such as those from road runoffs, or seeping pipelines may possess minimal visible effects; where they are naturally weakened normally due to microbial depravity and due to several physical-chemical mechanisms [4].

For that reason, the kind of and the quantity of oil disgorge as well as the place will determine the type of clean-up efforts, which could entail the deployment of controlled burning, emulsification applying detergents for heightened degradation, adsorbent booms, and bioremediation. Even though several natural disturbances and climate factor can spawn oil overflows, the main originators of oil overflow pollution are normally of anthropogenic, and the most common sources of anthropogenic origin are the following [5];

Intentional discharges such as through circumstances like indirect via burning of fuels, such as vehicle emission discharging different personal components of oils and its products such as hydrocarbons of PAH and benzene posing risk to human. It can also occur via drains or in sewer structures from regular human functions such as oil change in cars that drain into sewer systems. Researchers indicate that there are accidental oil spills taking places in circumstances like handling during transfer operations as well as different application [6]. Storage of oil and its products stores in different methods such as above ground and underground storage tanks that may develop leaks over a period of time. Routine maintenance functions such as cleaning of large tanker ships may discharge large quantities of gallons spilled per ship maintenance could accumulate to a massive number if all ships are deliberated.

In addition, there are road runoffs that accumulate on crowded roads, and due to several precipitation events, the initial tiny quantities of oil from continuous traffic will be moved around then accumulate in the environment. It is also part of the large oil spills during transportation of land or water that lead up to millions and hundreds of millions oil gallons that occur due to accidental ruptures of large transportation vessels such as tanker trucks and tanker ships [7].

c) Introduction to Exxon Valdez Accident and Deep Water Horizon Oil Spill

It is actually an accepted fact that the uncovering of oil has drastically changed the life of people. Oil engulfs day in day out lives of people in many indirect and direct methods in a number of forms. However, oil and its products have evolved into significant threats to people and the environment for the last two centuries [2]. Most significantly, oil spillage from accidents involving oil rigs and tankers have polluted vast areas o land and seas affecting marine and terrestrial ecosystems.

Analysis claim that for the last two centuries, various accidents involving oilrigs and tankers have rendered in overflows of hundreds of millions of oil gallons specifically into the oceans [2]. The Exxon Valdez oil overflow was a prominent oil spill in the world [7]. It was forth of March 1989, when an oil tanker by name Exxon Valdez pounded the Bligh Reef in the Prince William Sound region of Alaska in the United States of America, leading to one of the Largent maritime necrosis during that time. Owned by the Exxon Shipping Company, the Exxon Valdez was heading to Long Beach, California from Valdez Marine Terminal, when it hit into a reef at midnight [5]. The tanker was estimated to carry fifty-four million gallons of oil and at least ten million gallons of oil were discharged into the water, where the hull of the tanker was torn open during the mishap.

The Deep-water Horizon Oil Spill also knew, as the Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill of the BP Oil Spill is the largest oil spill that took place offshore oil platform forty miles southeast of Louisiana Coast on The tenth of April 2010. It was caused by an explosion of the deep-water horizon leading to one of the massive oil spills that took at least four months of spring and summer [7]. The spill was caused by a blast of natural gas exploding through a concrete core, consequently sinking and leading at least three millions of barrels of oil leaking into the Gulf.

d) Oil Clean-Up Methods

There are various methodologies that can be ratified for the purpose of cleaning up spills of oil. There are nine of which are considered vital for any form of oil overflows and they are as follows;

i) Application of oil booms- Oil booms is so obvious method used to regulate spills. There are different forms of oil booms that have been developed for different fields where oil spillages are likely to take place, resulting in absolute and exhaustive oil spill cleanup [8].

ii) Burning in-situ- Basically, this method entails burning of oil spills in the fields that it has taken place. The burning is normally prompt prior to the oil overflow extends to larger areas [8]. But the most significant detriment of such on-site blazing is that the exhaust eliminated has toxic residue that can affect or detriment the air around the area affecting the life surrounding it.

iii) Application of huge force and hot water- in this approach of the enormous power of the hot water is applied to push the oil pull apart into the water. It is followed with an assistance of skimming equipment and tools, spill cleanup activity takes place [9].

iv). Application of technological help- in this approach, there is an application of tractors and cranes in the spillage field at the coastal areas and beaches. Technological oil cleanup can also extend to the taking of oils spill into laboratories unto which separation from the items and sand from beaches and coastal areas is undertaken [10].

v) Use of sorbents-Sorbents in this case, in other words, means sponges, which are placed on the surface that the spillage has affected. These sponges absorb and suck the oil spills from the surface of the water thus leading to oil overflow cleanup [8].

vi) Application of dispersants- the method involves an application of fertilizers that disperses the spilled oil in the water. While the method may seem unconventional, it is largely applied and recommended. The fertilizers assist in speed up the growth of the microorganism, which aid to diffuse the elements of the oil in the water [11] [4].

vii) Skimming- skimming entails the eradication of oil discharges with the assistance of equipment and tools from the surface of the water body. The most vital facet to be considered is that only lighter oils can apply this method to isolate and discharge from the water body in this kind of cleanup method [8]. The reason behind is that the density of the oil will favor lighter oils that the density of the oil.

viii) Application of manual labor- this method primary employs people who are equipped with the knowledge and skills to speed up the oil overflow cleanup activity. The tools employed here are simple such as shovels and spades, to remove the oil from the coastal areas and beaches, making it possible and considered as a method of oil spillage cleanup method [7].

ix) The natural method of oil spills cleanup- it is the simplest method of dealing with oil spills. It involves applying the elements of nature such as tides, sun or weather. Elements of the oil spill evaporate in due time due to the constancy of these components [9]. It is one of the most cost-efficient methods but a slow method of cleaning up oil spills.

II Main Body

a) The Exxon Valdez Accident

1.1 Introduction to the Accident

The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill is one of the second largest oils spills in the history after the Gulf Of Mexico Oil Spill, which took place back in March fourth, 1989. It involved an oil tanker known as the Exxon Valdez that was owned by the Exxon Shipping Company. The ship was in the route towards Long Beach in the California United States from Valdez Marine Terminal when it struck the Bligh Reef in the Prince William Sound region in Alaska, United States of America [5]. The tanker ship was said to have transported with fifty-four million gallons of oil, and at midnight of the fourth of March, under the command of Captain Joseph Hazelwood who was considered not present at the helm of the tanker, it struck the reef leading to a significant fatality at that period.

1.2 Division of Oil- Source of Accident

A number of reports that ensued the accident had discovered several aspects that caused the Exxon Valdez ran aground on the reef as mentioned earlier was under the directive of Captain J. Hazelwood. It was proclaimed that the captain had left the wheel of the tanker ship when it ran into a collision in a route that is familiar for its nautical perils. Prior handling over the tanker’ control to the third mate, the captain had allegedly changed the course of the vessel to avert icebergs [5]. The safety officer, regrettably, failed to steer the tanker correctly thus leading the ship to leave the shipping lane ending up colliding with the reef, basically due to busted radar. Actually, the radar was initially not operating for over a year prior the oil spill calamity.

Further probe discovered that the captain was intoxicated and had gone to lie down in his banker at the time of the fatality. Researchers also identified that the captain made a grave aberration by handing over the wheel to the safety officer who had barely slept and in addition, was also not qualified to steer the tanker [5]. It was also discovered that the tanker lacked enough crew on board to per take necessary responsibilities during such instances.

Additionally, Maritime authorities discovered that the Exxon Shipping Company, just like many other shipping organizations, failed to adhere to the rules and regulations entailing installation of iceberg monitoring tools that they had agreed upon. Researches carried out also claimed that the calamity befell as the tanker steered through a route that was not recommended under the usual shipping course [3]. After a twelve-month research and trials, the captain was found guilty and convicted of transgression carelessness one of the anthropogenic oil spills.

1.3 Cleanup Method

Since the incident took place in open navigable waters, the Coast Guards provided an emergency response of first closing up the Port of Valdez to basically all traffic [12]. The U. S Coast Guard at directed these measures along with the Alaska Department of Environment Conservation, who went to the scene to assess the damage and determine the methods of cleanup that would be effective and efficient. Five days later after the incidence, a teleconference, as well as the National Response Team, created a response team of Alaska [7]. The team included the representative from the Exxon Company and six other shipping companies.

As the Council, E. V. O. S. T. identifies that the Alaska Coast Guard expeditiously expanded their presence on the scene of the accident and undertook three major cleanup methods that included, mechanical cleanup, burning, and chemical dispersants [13].

Burning- this method was a trial at the early stages of the oil spill. Boom, a fire-resistant was placed on towlines, as well as the two ends of boom were linked to ships. The ships, with the boom between them, sailed nonchalantly across the major portions of the slick till the boom was filled with oil [9]. Later, University of Delaware (2004), identifies that the boom was towed away from the slick and the oil within the boom burned [12]. Due to the distance between the Exxon Valdez and the slick, the fire was not exposed to it [5]. But the unfavorable weather acted against further burning leading to mechanical cleanup efforts.

Mechanical cleanup method- it was begun by application of skimmers and booms. Skimmers, however, seem not to be readily available on the first day of the spill. Skimmers were affected by heavy seaweeds leading to numerous repairs consequently lots of time wastage [9]. Transfer of oil from temporary storage barrels to permanent storage vessels deemed quite hard, because of the oil thickness and weight.

Dispersant- this method was added that proved to be contentious. There were four thousand fewer gallons of dispersant present in Valdez terminals, as well as lack of aircraft [4] [6]. So a non-governmental organization offered helicopters and dispersant containers. But due to lack of waves to facilitate mixing of dispersants, the method deemed insufficient.

1.4 Ecosystem Damage

The Environmental Pollution Centers.org depict that the spill of eleven million gallons of crude oil posed a threat to the dainty food chain [14]. It bolstered the commercial fishing business in Prince William Sound due to excessive application of dispersants [15], thus contaminated foods [11] [4]. It also posed a threat to millions of migratory species of birds as well as waterfowl, hundreds of sea otters and other species such as sea lions, different wales and harbor porpoises.

1.5 Evaluation

Exxon Valdez released an estimate of 40-60% of its 55 million gallons of Alaska North Slope crude oil in the Sound. The oil spread across an estimate of an area of 28, 000 Km2, impacting a distance of 1800 Km of Prince William Sound along the coastline of Alaska. At least 250, 000 seabirds, 2,800 sea otters, 22 different species of whales and billion of herring eggs and salmons were recorded to have died from the oil spill [7]. Only 10% of the spilled oil was recovered even after 10,000 volunteers and an estimate of 2 billion US dollars was accounted for the cleanup. After a year of cleanup, only 70% of the Alaska coastline was free of the oil spill.

1.6 Alternative Method for Fixing an Accident

While booming, skimming and hot water cleanup were largely utilized, only 10% of cleanup was recorded. High pressure was considered vital and effective along the shoreline; bioremediation was also undertaken but took at least a year, where biologist, chemist, and geologist undertook an extensive cleanup of the oil spill [10] [1].

b) The Deepwater Horizon

1.7 Introduction to the Accident

In the year 2010, the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill took place in the United State Gulf of Mexico affecting the local environment as well as the offshore gas and oil drilling. The accident led to the spread of toxic gases and fluids and consequently an explosion that led to the death of eleven employees and injuring a hundred and fifteen others. Two days later after the accident, the rig sank destroying the pipe that connects the well and the jettisoning leading to a spill of almost five million barrels of oil in the gulf, leading to one of the greatest oil spills in the US history after the Exxon Valdez Accident [16].

1.8 Division of Oil/Source of Accident

The British Oil Company BP had currently created a contemporary concrete cap in the core of the rig supposedly meant to contain a natural gas [17]. The concrete was therefore mixed with nitrogen gas meant to accelerate the process of curing. In addition, the instructions provided during the construction were incorrectly leading to mismanagement and poor maintenance [18]. Primarily, with the faulty installation of the cap, improper maintenance, lack of maintenance of equipment leads to the collapse of the structure.

On that fateful day of twentieth of April 2010, the concrete cap cracked open, the natural gas leaked out of the rig to the platform. It busted into flames leading to eleven individuals losing their lives and seventeen others were severely injured. After forty-eight hours the ignited rig caved in despite efforts to sustain it. So it means that the BP had drawn oil from the seafloor and when the rig tipped over all the oil started cascading directly into the ocean, pumping sixty thousand barrels of oil every for the next three months.

1.9 Cleanup Method

The first attempt to clean up was to control the burn of surface oil also identified as the in-situ burn. Fire booms were also employed to pull oil further away from the spill to a safe igniting. Control burning was progressively employed till mid of May same year when conditions were considered favorable for the method [18].

The EPA Coast Guard approved chemical dispersant-it, where the chemical was sprayed onto oil slicks to speed up the process of natural dispersion. In this case, the dispersants were Coretix EC9527A and Coretix 9500 to be applied an estimate of a distance of three nautical miles or five Kilometers [6]. Out of the methods through spraying, a total of seven hundred and fifteen thousand gallons of oil above and below the ocean were deployed.

Construction of sand berms- this method was deployed about eighty miles along the barrier islands as well as the wetland to capture oil. It would block oil from penetrating to rivers such as the Mississippi and all the way to the Isles Derrieres [18]. The barriers are to collect the oil behind the walls and the cleanup team would suck it up before it reaches the marshes.

1.10 Ecosystem Damage

After the spill, three years down the line, the spill had reached fifty-five miles of the beaches and embedded in sand [14]. It was discovered that the spill had killed hundreds of dolphins and still was at six times faster than before. The oil thus developing abnormalities in their hearts affected fishes such as amberjack and tuna. Several species of fish along with their eggs were recorded dead and their habitats destroyed as many of them were spawning during the tie of an accident. In addition, the spill also polluted marshes and other microbial environs that were considered significant for various populations of microorganisms some of which were vital for biodegradation natural products [19].

1.11 Evaluation

The BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill took 87 consecutive days till it was capped in July [20]. It was discharging at least 10% of oil each day of the total 210 million gallons of crude oil and measured to have spread across a 200 Km2. There was an increase in the spread of oil every year for over 55 miles of the beach in Louisiana and acquired at least 5,000,000 pounds of oil material [16] [21]. The rate of mortality rate among infant dolphins was the ratio of 1:6 or rather the percentage of infant dolphins was 87.715 and that of adult dolphins was 14.28%.

1.12 Alternative Method of Fixing the Accident

Due to the continuous leaking of the oil at the BP, the company could have effectively found a way to apply a massive dome over the oil leaks that were oozing out of the broken pipes that were linked to the sunken rigs and the well [22]. It would quickly secure the source of the submerged oil coming from the well [10]. It would also make it easy to respond to the offshore and surface water cleanup much quicker and efficient.

C) Importance of the Cleanup Methods

The policies of oil cleanup apply significance cleanup methods for both the Exxon Valdez accident and the BPDW oil spill depend solely on the kind of tools employed, the location, kind of spill and the factors of the environment [11]. The mechanical methods applied for cleanup are vital as they reduce the spread of oil or to a receiver the oil, and in this case is the use of booms, skimmers [6]. Basically, the essence is to assist clean the oil spill before it reaches the shorelines [8]. Application of chemicals; dispersants, assist in breaking oil rapidly so that the slick is halted from thickening and spreading thus affecting the ecosystem [1].

II. Conclusion

a) General Conclusion

The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill into the Prince William Sound Alaska in March 1989 greatly changed how the US oil spill disasters preparedness and management is perceived. Followed by the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil spill that took place twenty years later in April 2010 located in Southeast of Louisiana coast saw a much devastating disaster that proved that the US was not quite prepared for such a large magnitude of oil spills in history. The two oil spills led to a number of mitigations or rather cleanups from booms, skimming, application of chemicals such as dispersants after they had greatly destroyed the environments leading to loss of animal and plant species in the area and loss of financial of the companies involved.

b) Connection to Global Environmental Issues

The two spills led to vast pollution of water bodies killing marine species such as whales, dolphins, seals as well as sea otters. Oil stick and coat on the fur of these creatures leaving them vulnerable to hypothermia. Oil spill also affects habitats such as the marshes, mangrove forests where residues of oil are easily degraded.

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