Targeting TB: Strategies for Mitigating Mortality Among HIV Patients in Brazil

Introduction

The study focuses on TB-related consequences among HIV patients and the social distribution of TB in Brazil. It is more likely for HIV patients to catch TB and death becomes inevitable. Understanding the factors associated with mortality could help the strategy to End TB. As per the findings of previous researchers, it is observed that 39,997 individuals died, out of a total of 283,508 individuals which is as huge as 14.1% (kff.org, 2021). HIV-positive serology is associated strongly with TB deaths where male gender deaths were more up to 90% as compared to women. Illiterate schooling, sedentary lifestyles, and black color or race seem to be affected more by this process. "In 2018, 1.2 million deaths from TB among seronegative individuals and 251,000 deaths among HIV-positive people were estimated (avert.org, 2021)". TB remains one of the most popular causes of TB deaths. TB treatment should be done with priority and it has to be managed as a burning issue since TB remains the ninth main reason of mass death inside the country. This study, which could benefit from healthcare dissertation help, is going to show real data on how the spread is occurring, what symptoms are faced by the patients and how the issue can be dealt with.

The social distribution of Tuberculosis in Brazil

The main issue which is associated with tuberculosis in Brazil is observed to "innate immunity, apoptosis, which is identified as a programmed cell death, of an infected macrophage is an important host immune response to TB infection" (bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com, 2021). Approximate 1.2 million cases were reported globally to ensure that TB is stopped. "Studies have demonstrated depletion of TB-specific CD4-T cells in peripheral blood and the lung at early stages of HIV disease, suggesting that TB-specific adaptive immunity may be especially susceptible to HIV-associated immune damage (bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com, 2021)”. The essential role of cd4t cells is not managed in granulomas and depletion of the process increases the risk of EPTB or extra TB. HIV weakens the immune system, increasing the risk of TB in people with HIV. Anti-inflammatory cytokine decrease may be a mechanism behind the coinfection. The average age of HIV infection is identified to be starting as young as 15 years. Upon testing the clinic profile of people living with deficiency of adrenal, it is observed that people are more prone to catching tuberculosis. "Hyponatremia, hypoglycemia and deranged serum creatinine were consistently seen in subjects with hypoadrenalism".

All these factors are seen to be contributing to the disease's spread. This is quite a common situation that occurs post tuberculosis and many people are seen to be dealing with this adrenal deficiency. There are more than 900000 cases of AIDS that have been reported to be given antiretroviral therapy which is one of the best-identified treatments for AIDS (ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, 2021). Key populations such as sex workers, gay men, and transsexual people are deprived of freedom and use drugs and alcohol limitlessly. The prevalence of sex is increasing by 18%. Vulnerability is heightened by several social and economic characteristics which define being black or living on the streets. Among females, the transmission rate is 5% and Brazil is taking a combination prevention strategy (ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, 2021). Offering free access to an array of HIV prevention resources such as male and female condoms and self-testing leaves an impact of being stable to the process of infection education.

The social distribution also focuses on catastrophic costs. These are several household costs impacted upon on management of annual income that is divided in the category of treatment of HIV aids. Micro costing is used as an approach for the management of diagnostic tests, radiological examinations, and medications. Non-medical direct costs are associated with the reimbursement of components. Payments on treatment, medication withdrawal costs, healthcare centers are ensured to be readily available for the people of Brazil. Follow-up costs are associated with the total costs of a visit and indulging in payment for consultation fees. There are hospitalization and laboratory costs incurred to a patient which come from the patient's pockets. The government does not have any strong and potential strategy to manage the costs and illness by applying human capital. Characterizing poverty has been done through establishing the upper limits of treatment costs. Most of the sex-age specific Tb burden was found to be highest among males and children under 1-year and within the age group of 45 to 59 years (who. int, 2021).

“Alcohol use accounted for 47.5 percent of national DALYs due to TB among HIV-negative in 2017 (who. int, 2021)". An estimate of 1.1 children died from the disease in 2018. The patients are already in a dilemma of not being able to manage the costs that are incurring and on top of that, they are facing social discrimination due to the deadly diseases they are infected with. People doing drugs or addicted to any other possibilities are observed to be quitting the treatment against AIDS. This unawareness and casual attitude to the disease is becoming one of the major threats for humankind. The reflection of childcare is associated with community building and HIV status updating. Pediatric TB is having low rates of cure and needs prevention at an early stage. Microbiological confirmation is associated with substantial obstacle management and rapid detection of TB disease. From the year 2000 to 2009, 40% of the children were less likely to be positive (plos.org, 2021).

Impact on the mental health of patients and the symptoms suffered

Patients induce coughs, favor intimate contact in closed environments and intermittent people flow. Many individuals were submitted to the molecular 70.45% and drug sensitivity test has been identified to be 57.1% (plos.org, 2021). Poor health services associated with a low percentage of cures are observed. Adherence to ART is not seen to be managed. The co-infection to HIV with TB cases has been observed as a part of managing deaths at a lower rate. A study carried out in Alagoas state, had reported that people confined in overcrowded and unhealthy environments are having higher rates of being diagnosed with TB. While they are already being diagnosed with HIV, lack of ventilation leaves up to a higher exposure to be related to the infection. Lack of sanitation for homeless people causes more such threats.

Social determinants are observed that impact the mental health of a patient. Facing regular discrimination at work or in any social commitment makes them commit suicide and fall prey to loneliness. A persistent cough that brings out blood and chest pain and fatigue along with loss of appetite is associated with TB.

Public health problems are identified and life expectancy has been reduced over the years for populations in Brazil. Being aware of their HIV status is associated with Brazil's HIV treatment plan and managing viral suppression. Self-esteem and rights of sex workers need to be preserved while there should be emphasis given on consistent condom use. The progress is not homogeneous and it is difficult to process the changes and manage global targets for the reduction of TB mortality and morbidity. The implementation and expansion of public initiatives for social protection and poverty alleviation. TB is mostly concentrated in the areas of poverty where reaching out for minimal resources of treatment becomes a threat to public health. “HIV screening in some Brazilian areas with poorer health service structure is observed, which increases the uncertainty about the real magnitude of TB-HIV co-infection” (Sashindran, Philip, and Muthukrishnan, 2019). Global monitoring occurs within setting up targets and indicating the influence of the TB epidemic.

Ending poverty in all forms and everywhere outlasts well-being for all ages. Early screening for TB in people newly diagnosed with HIV processes lower death rates. The risk of contracting TB is significantly elevated up to 16 to 27 times greater than in people that do not have HIV. TB affects HIV patients by leading to a serious health threat especially among young people that are prone to vulnerability (kff.org, 2021). 45% of HIV-negative people with TB on average are expected to die. The data sets of HIV prevalence within children and adults diagnosed with TB effects diagnosis can be presented in terms of annual death estimation of 8.7 million and new infection cases rising at 2.5 million among children (Zhang et al. 2021). Adults aged between 20 to 45 years are seen to be engaging in HIV-positive rates whereas adults are less prone to the infection (Viana et al. 2020). Mechanisms that are promoting susceptibility of people with HIV have completely understood the immunity threats and it is one of the main reasons for not being able to manage TB-related threats.

“HIV positive children were significantly less likely to have a positive IGRA than HIV negative children after adjusting for degree of TB exposure (Martins-Melo et al. 2020)". The mental trauma is increasing day after day and people should not rule out active TB issues. There are differential aspects identified as a part of managing people with TB threats. HIV-related concerns are causing a rise in the life efficacy of younger adults. In most cases, the discrimination is going beyond the limit of tolerance and forcing all these young adults to make certain decisions that are harmful to them.

Treatment plans and uses of technology

It is observed that technology is living up to the expectation of doctors and nurses. There are multiple varieties of services achieved which gives adequacy of using drones in rural areas to keep track of awareness camps. One of the main sources of monitoring HIV is to focus on the awareness generation between the affected and unaffected people. Each individual should be given enough information on how the handling of technology can save lives. It is observed that big data and advanced analytics used in the medical field are enabling medical practitioners to keep up a record of huge data lists (Sharan et al. 2020). This technology is allowing medical practitioners on early detect any disease and get almost error-free readings of the process. There are video calling features innovated within medical science to ensure that patients from remote areas are also getting a chance of effective monitoring and treatment. The generalization of data components allows to authenticate infection-related concerns and send possible medical help.

Moreover, certain research is going on with ART therapy that will not only manage AIDS, also focus on TB-related concerns. Advance treatment such as "isoniazid INH in combination with three other drugs—rifampin, pyrazinamide and ethambutol” for TB is going to be aligned with AIDS treatment (Hong, Budhathoki, and Farley, 2018). AIDS is one of the major concerns of the decades that needs immediate mitigation. All these treatments are aimed to be managed at a low cost. Taking care of food is also important during this condition along with taking adequate medicines. Creating some of the campaigns that donate food or take responsibility for food for a person is essential. "Fruits and vegetables like orange, mango, sweet pumpkin and carrots, guava, amla, tomato, nuts, and seeds are an excellent source of Vitamin A, C, and E" (Guidoni et al. 2021). Most of the time good food comes at higher affordability acts, now creating a food bank for donating food and money to satisfy the needs of hungry people is essential for reducing the high risks of TB. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle is prioritized as the infection has chances of revival even after many years of recovery.

The future of AIDS and TB-related treatment is still not defined as there might be stronger interference observed between these two drug uses together. Continuous testing is focused to make sure that increasing knowledge of HIV status could work as a preventive measure. “Co-trimoxazole preventative therapy" is identified as another name that manages the range of bacterial and parasitic infections. This is one of the best possible measures that can be taken for such patients. It is important to create a collaboration between HIV and TB programs on the management of tuberculosis targets (Huante, Nusbaum, and Endsley, 2019). The six approaches that are working currently as a live savior are intensified case finding, TB/HIV integration, community involvement, infection control, ART, and Isoniazid preventive therapy.

Recommendation on dealing with the co-infection and social discrimination

CO-infection of HIV and TB is a deadly combination as in both cases the immunity power is lessened for the patient which makes it non-responding. As a part of diagnosis management, there should be adequate access given to the treatment. The most frightening thing is increasing racial discrimination. Humans are social creatures and the co-infection might snatch away all rights of living as a society created from the inmates. Even there are care givers, nurses and practitioners are performing discrimination in some parts of Brazil before treating them (Tornheim, and Dooley, 2018). The lower-income group is residing in poverty and social discrimination is becoming one of the major threats for the people to get adequate support on treatments. As a part of handling social discrimination, an online campaign can be started that HIV cannot spread through socializing. It can only spread through unprotected sexual relations, using the same infected syringe. However, TB can be spread through bacterial transmission in the air that is coming out from the cough or saliva of the infected people. Persons nearby with TB infections need to use masks and take adequate precautions so that no other person inhales the infectious bacteria.

“National policies in 93% of the 30 countries with the highest burden of TB in the world have made GeneXpert the primary diagnostic test for MDR-TB, and 80% recommend it as the primary test for people living with HIV” (Benzaken et al. 2019). In Brazil also similar types of components are going to be used. Helping the institution on breaking the stigma and address local stigma is important. Engaging a community that widely spreads the words and generates awareness through TV-based promotional campaigns on seeking the care of tuberculosis services. Using social media as tagging "TB and stigma" can create qualitative management of the situation. Brazil can also take inspiration from India where the DOT program is generated as a part of managing TB predominance.

Conclusion

This study gives an adequate idea of social demographic analysis on TB and HIV co-infection. HIV reduced the immune system within a person which invites TB functionality. Self-efficacy is perceived within TB to improve the adverse effects it and exact data on how it is dreadful in Brazil is observed. TB stigma works on community-based health disparities. The predominance of TB improvises on drug resistance and several healthcare workers are needed to be engaged in this process to encourage the process of awareness generation. Treatment methods are explained as a part of taking control measures within country-specific HIV treatment management. The study gives adequate information on how the process will be encouraged in spreading awareness across common people. The common people have focused on the management of awareness campaigns and needs an acceleration to the method of social distribution criticism in Brazil. Reducing the stigma and starting campaign in benefit of common man is largely explained here.

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References

Journals

Huante, M.B., Nusbaum, R.J. and Endsley, J.J., 2019. Co-infection with TB and HIV: converging epidemics, clinical challenges, and microbial synergy. In Tuberculosis Host-Pathogen Interactions (pp. 123-153). Springer, Cham.

Sashindran, V.K., Philip, S. and Muthukrishnan, J., 2019. Clinical profile of adrenal insufficiency in people living with HIV AIDS PLHA with current or recent tuberculosis. Int J HIV AIDS Res Vol, 2(1).

Sharan, R., Bucşan, A.N., Ganatra, S., Paiardini, M., Mohan, M., Mehra, S., Khader, S.A. and Kaushal, D., 2020. Chronic immune activation in TB/HIV co-infection. Trends in microbiology, 28(8), pp.619-632.

Tornheim, J.A. and Dooley, K.E., 2018. Challenges of TB and HIV co-treatment: updates and insights. Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, 13(6), pp.486-491.

Online Articles

Benzaken, A.S., Pereira, G.F., Costa, L., Tanuri, A., Santos, A.F. and Soares, M.A., 2019. Antiretroviral treatment, government policy and economy of HIV/AIDS in Brazil: is it time for HIV cure in the country?. AIDS research and therapy, 16(1), pp.1-7. Available at:

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Hong, H., Budhathoki, C. and Farley, J.E., 2018. Increased risk of aminoglycoside-induced hearing loss in MDR-TB patients with HIV coinfection. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 22(6), pp.667-674. Available at:

Martins-Melo, F.R., Bezerra, J.M.T., Barbosa, D.S., Carneiro, M., Andrade, K.B., Ribeiro, A.L.P., Naghavi, M. and Werneck, G.L., 2020. The burden of tuberculosis and attributable risk factors in Brazil, 1990–2017: results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Population health metrics, 18(1), pp.1-17. Available at:

Viana, P.V.D.S., Paiva, N.S., Villela, D.A.M., Bastos, L.S., de Souza Bierrenbach, A.L. and Basta, P.C., 2020. Factors associated with death in patients with tuberculosis in Brazil: Competing risks analysis. PloS one, 15(10), p.e0240090. Available at:

Zhang, L., ur Rahman, M., Arfan, M. and Ali, A., 2021. Investigation of mathematical model of transmission co-infection TB in HIV community with a non-singular kernel. Results in Physics, 28, p.104559. Available at: < https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211379721006616>