Exploring Contemporary Leadership Approaches and Organizational Alignment

Introduction

Contemporary leadership approaches include leader-member exchange, transformational leadership, authentic leadership and even servant leadership (Winkler, 2010). Organisational alignment requires the creation of open and multi-directional communication. Leaders have to set goals that are clear and ethical, both for themselves and also for others. Leaders who are effective have the capabilities of combining divergent views and synthesising from the views the best for organisations (Subrahmanyam, 2018). These leaders are also able to inspire even those individuals who ideas are not adopted such that they are able to see why chosen options are better than other proposals and that goes a long way in making other to commit to the leaders path. Leadership is an art where one has to be able to get others to what they want and further go in the direction that they set, both willingly and unwillingly (Lee, Chen and Su, 2020).

These essay focuses on the transformational and authentic contemporary styles of leadership and looks into three leaders who led different organisations and groups in the past to establish what impacts they had on the people in the organisations they led and to further analyse the significance of their decisions to leadership studies. Authentic leadership is viewed as an influential style of leadership because there is always a high likelihood that employees would trust such leaders (Lyubovnikova et al. 2017). Transformational leaders, on the other hand, lead their employees by aligning the goals of the employees to their goals (Banks et al. 2016). Transformational leaders are charismatic in that they have magnetic personalities that grant them huge following, are able to use inspirational motivations for the development of visions that are able of inspiring others, challenge organisational norms and status quo and they also show personal concern for their followers and employees well-being (Ng, 2017).

Examples of leaders

Carly Fiorina`s tenure at Hewlett-Packard was not very impressive (Morello, 2018). What eventually cost her job was championing a mega-merger with a rival over fierce competition. The mega-merger that happened back in 2001 brought about a bloody proxy war that put Fiorina and Walter Hewlett the son to Bill Hewlett, the cofounder of Hewlett-Packard at cross-roads. As a result of the deal, up to 30,000 employees lost their jobs (Ginzl, 2007). In 2001 when the merger happened, Compaq`s revenues totalled $33 billion while those of HP grossed $45 billion. The merger saw HP sell 37% of its assets to Compaq. Back then, the printer business was HP`s most valuable business. While before the merger the HP business was owned entirely 100% by shareholders, the merger saw their stake decline to 63% and they got a greater share of Compaq`s PC division whose margins were lower (Shukla, 2014). Fiorina forced the merger between HP and Compaq which was her special panacea for the future of HP. The deal was strongly opposed by Walter Hewlett (Rosencrance, 2001). Fast forward after the merger, HP was not able to receive any of the benefits Fiorina had claimed it would receive and instead went on to lose its value considerably.

Martin Luther exhibited the characteristics of a transformational leader (mCgUIRE AND Hutchings, 2007). Martin Luther King took up the mantle of leading the civil rights movement even when he knew too well that his decision would be met with violence and resistance. There was never anything that King undertook that was easy and he was confronted with different types of imaginable obstacles (Hamdani, 2018). His courage to lead the civil rights movement was however, rooted in his belief that the cause had more importance that the obstacles and danger he faced. Leading the movement was not easy and while receiving the Nobel Peace Prize back in 1964, he admitted that accepting the prize was not easy for him because the movement he led was still engaged in an unrelenting struggle, a struggle that was yet to win peace which was the prize`s essence. He however, went ahead to accept the prize remarking that the award was for his movement’s non-violent response to rather harrowing violence and oppression. King had a strong belief that his actions of shining light on African Americans oppression and discrimination would in the long run bring about meaningful change (Card, 2018). Eventually, his efforts bore fruit.

During the speech “I have a Dream,” King had called for an end to the racism in the United States and equal civil and economic rights for all. Visionary leaders are all about having a dream and knowing where they want their organisations to be in the near future and even in the long run. With such awareness, leaders align all their activities for achievement of the vision. Visions are mental pictures of the future. They are ideas of what the future possibly holds that is yet to happen. Visions guide leaders in that they create desires in them to grow and improve, they embody leaders’ hopes and ideals and also give them a sense of purpose.

Howard Schultz, the former Chief Executive Officer and currently Chairman emeritus of Starbucks coffeehouses, is one good example of an authentic leader. Growing up, Schultz witnessed job-related difficulties that were experienced by his father who had various medical complications (Leavy, 2016). From the experience with his father, while he never even had the idea that he would at one time own a business himself, his desires of protecting others got shaped. While at the helm of Starbucks, he went on to become an industry pioneer in the provision of retirement coverage and health insurance, both to part-time and full-time employees. Schultz had a vision to bring personalised and deeper appreciation for coffee through coffee shops.

At the forefront of Schultz`s priorities at Starbucks were employees. A psychodynamic leadership approach could best explain the reasons behind Schulz creating a company focused on its employees. Individuals focus on the inner theatre provides insights of the effect of their past relationships on their future behaviours and relationships (Schmid and Havar-Simonovich, 2016).

Conclusion

Leaders operate work with different types of people and even operate within different structures which requires them to be adaptable. Being self-aware is one of the characteristics of authentic leaders. These are leaders who have a good understanding of where they came from, introspective and who are not afraid to act the way they do. Their levels of personal integrity are high and they say what they think. While avoiding to copy and imitate the leadership styles of others, their personalities and life experiences inform their styles (Davis, 2018).

Always knowing the way behind what you are doing is with no doubt, one of the most important lessons learned from King. Everything that King did, was in the name of achieving the vision he stipulated in his “I have a Dream” speech. It is important for leaders to look around and see where their companies are headed. That helps avert catastrophes before they get to happen and also facilitates the identification of needs for improvement in different areas like production and even staffing. Leaders with clear visions stick to their cause even when faced with unexpected setbacks and even during rocky times (Khan, Rahman and Iqbal, 2017). King was faced with countless setbacks and additional moments of failure at his time leading the Civil Rights Movement. He was arrested more than 20 times, his house was bombed and even set aflame and he was even stabbed. King, however, never let these obstacles to stand on his way. He stuck to his vision with the determination of seeing it through.

Both Fiorina and King had visions and were not afraid to make decisions. The difference between the two comes in that when it came to people, Fiorina showed poor judgement repeatedly. Judgements that are never executed successfully are failed judgements no matter the smartness of the strategies. Fiorina seemingly focused all her energies on the moment of the call and paid very little attention to consideration of challenges to preparation and that was especially evidenced in her decision to merge HP with Compaq. At HP, Fiorina had not even built a team of people that were energised by her vision who would have facilitated her successful steering of the execution phase. Evidently, Fiorina was not able to align the people at HP behind her vision.

Leaders also need to forge good relationships with their employees and give consideration to their interests. Schultz`s authentic leadership is evidenced by his commitment to people even before himself, the strong vision he had for his company, the confidence he had on himself and even others and even his sociability. Schultz evidently valued his employees and in 2008, when there were calls from shareholders and board members for him to cut back on provision of benefits to his employees, he refused. A partnership was forged in 2014 by Schultz with Arizona State University that would see Starbuck`s employees get education online. Working for leaders who are authentic is beneficial for employees and leads to increased satisfaction, overall well-being and performance of employees (Reb et al. 2019).

References

Banks, G.C., McCauley, K.D., Gardner, W.L. and Guler, C.E., 2016. A meta-analytic review of authentic and transformational leadership: A test for redundancy. The leadership quarterly, 27(4), pp.634-652.

Card, M.M., 2018. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s" I Have a Dream" Speech: An Exploration and Analysis of Personal, Cultural, and Collective Complexes in the Foundation of the Dream and the Life of Dr. King. Journal of Heart Centered Therapies, 21(2), pp.3-28.

Davis, K., 2018. Brave Leadership: Unleash Your Most Confident, Powerful, and Authentic Self to Get the Results You Need. Greenleaf Book Group.

Ginzl, D.J., 2007. Rise and Fall of a Superstar. Com. Lending Rev., 22, p.41.

Hamdani, M.R., 2018. Learning how to be a transformational leader through a skill-building, role-play exercise. The International Journal of Management Education, 16(1), pp.26-36.

Leavy, B., 2016. Effective leadership today–character not just competence. Strategy & Leadership.

Lee, Y.D., Chen, P.C. and Su, C.L., 2020. THE EVOLUTION OF THE LEADERSHIP THEORIES AND THE ANALYSIS OF NEW RESEARCH TRENDS. International Journal of Organizational Innovation, 12(3).

Lyubovnikova, J., Legood, A., Turner, N. and Mamakouka, A., 2017. How authentic leadership influences team performance: The mediating role of team reflexivity. Journal of business Ethics, 141(1), pp.59-70.

With the continued evolvement of businesses and as they become more productive and profitable, businesses tend to create more positions like CTO, CIO, CEO and CPA all which are intended at offering more support to their services. Organizations stand to benefit a lot from hiring from within and hiring their existing staff to these positions. Companies could save money from this because the hiring of executives is a rather expensive affair that also consumes a lot of time. Hiring from within facilitates seamless business transitions that have no perceptible impacts on the organizations customers and also their client base who are their main source of revenue. There are however, also challenges attached to hiring from within which make hiring from without more appealing.

This study will explore the different challenges and opportunities tied to hiring from within with the intention of determining the best way forward when it comes to selection of individuals to fill up executive positions.

The study will collect data through integrative literature search and the collected data will be subjected to thematic grid analysis for identification of recurrent themes.

Leadership is one of the most important variables that has an effect on the performance of organizations (Mansouri et al. 2018). Across different organizations, there is always the probability that performance has a relationship with the aggregate effects of leaders at different hierarchical levels. A proper understanding of the interplay between organizational performance, organizational culture and leadership helps develop effective organizations (Castelli, 2016). The environments that firms operate in are rather tense and highly volatile and the determination of ways through which organizational performance can be optimized continues to be an area of concern (Zaabi et al. 2017).

Within organizations, chief executive officers are the highest ranking executives and the primary responsibilities include management of overall operations and organizational resources, making major corporate decisions and also acting as a communication bridge between the boards of directors and corporate operations. CEO`s also act as organizations face.

Problem Statement

Many organizations seek to hire from within where they look out for talented individuals from their workforce and promote them to fill higher positions. This is done with the intention of avoiding the costs associated with hiring executives and also as a tool for employee motivation. Those organizations that employ industry recruiters are forced to pay for the leads, pre-qualifications and also introductions. Hiring from within also goes a long way in shortening the learning curve because the employees being promoted are already aware about many of the jobs aspects, familiar with organizational systems and it is not necessary to introduce them to the staff and give them time to familiarize themselves with the organization. This rather good initiative, however, faces different challenges and those individuals who get promoted to occupy higher positions end up performing dismally and get overwhelmed by their new roles and tasks. Hiring mistakes are rather costly which are seen organization wide from declines in growth, lost time, momentum and productivity and morale dips. In the long run, the diminished satisfaction of customers. The data that will be collected in this study will be helpful for organizations as they it will weigh the two alternatives, hiring from within and hiring from without with the intention of determining which of the two is fit for hiring of individuals to fill up executive positions. While there are opportunities tied to hiring from within, there are also challenges. The same also applies to hiring externally. That brings about significant confusion as organizations do not know the best way forward.

Purpose

This research will evaluate leadership and organizational performance and will further explore the effect different patterns of leadership have on the performance of organizations. The focus of the research will specifically be on hiring upwards from within.

Hiring from within

Hiring from within helps with retaining employees. According to Devaro (2016), when employees have a proper understanding that promotion from within is one of the policies of a company, the opportunities of moving up the ladder provide strong incentives to the employees to work harder and further stay in place as members of teams. Employees are always appreciative of career advancement opportunities without having to move to different states and companies (Capelli, 2019). With employees knowing one another well, they are more comfortable with well-deserved promotions of their peers and view the possibilities of also being promoted at some points of their careers. Those employees with an awareness of recognition of their efforts enjoy greater job security.

By promoting from within, companies also maintain their investments in the skills and knowledge of their employees (Krell, 2015). Organizations have the tendency of hiring school graduates, training them in real-world business practices and even investing time to further their education and to help them acquire higher degrees of certification. These investments are only able to pay off if organizations manage to keep their valuable employees in their companies and advance the employees up the ladders of management (DeVaro, Kauhanen & Valmari, 2017).

Promoting from within, however, also presents its unique set of challenges which requires that companies have to approach it with caution. According to the Peter Principle, all things that work are used in increasingly challenging applications until they fail (Benson, Li & Shue, 2019). What this means is that companies have the tendency of promoting their employees on the basis of their performance on their current roles without giving consideration to their possibility of success in the new tasks and roles they are being promoted to. Promotion of individuals within organizations who are not equipped to succeed in their new roles harms the operations of an organization and also harms the wellbeing of the employee (Chan, 2018). For such scenarios to be avoided, it is important to give consideration to the potential of individuals to succeed and accord value to it the same way their past job performances were valued. Additionally, individuals being promoted to occupy higher positions require adequate training and support to see them succeed.

The napoleon complex can also be used to explain the reasons for failure in hiring from within. Putting people into positions where they have greater responsibilities tends to go to their heads especially when they are bestowed with more power (McKenna & Intezari, 2018). Stereotyping is another common pitfall in internal hiring which is characterized by hiring managers only hiring those candidates who fit the profile of what hiring managers consider people in those positions should look like.

Research questions

What is the effect of management on performance

What are some of the factors for failure of hiring from within and promoting employees to higher positions

What could be done to facilitate smooth hiring from within

Hypothesis

H1 Hiring from within leads to increased performance of an organization. H2 Hiring from within leads to reduced performance of organizations.

H2 Hiring from within leads to reduced performance of organizations.

Limitations of the Study

There are potential limitations to this study. The researcher has to meet the set deadlines for submission of research manuscripts. The researcher`s abilities to extensively explore the research problem and to further measure changes over time, will with no doubt, be constrained by the deadlines that have been set for the submission of the research paper.

Definition of Key Terms

Leadership – this is the art of motivating groups of people such that their actions facilitate the achievement of common goals.

Organizational performance – this comprises of organizations actual results and outputs as measured against the organizations goals and outputs that are their intended objectives.

Hiring from within – this involves organizations hiring their existing employees for open roles that involve; new roles, promotions and even team transfers.

Research Design

This study will adopt an inductive research paradigm which will involve moving towards generalizations and theories that are broader from specific observations. According to Morgan (2017), there are immense capabilities attached to the inductive research paradigm of expanding researcher`s understanding of the problems under investigation and that will inform the use of inductive reasoning in the study. Inductive reasoning begins with observations and towards the end of research processes, theories are proposed from the observation. There are no hypotheses and theories applicable to inductive studies at the onset of studies and researchers are always free to alter the study`s direction even after the commencement of the research process. It is worth noting that the inductive approach is aimed at generating meanings from collected data sets for purposes of identification of patterns and relations that facilitate the development of theories. In no way does inductive reasoning bar researcher`s from using existent theories for the formulation of research questions to be explored (Kyngas, 2020).

Data Collection

This is a quantitative study and the researcher will rely on an integrative literature search for collection of data with no set limits for the literature. The Boolean approach will be employed to aid the search for data and the key words that will be used for data search are;

Integrative methods of literature search summarizes theoretical and also empirical literature to offer a clear understanding of different phenomena (Christmals & Gross, 2017). Carrying out integrative reviews well facilitates the development of theory.

The Boolean search approach makes use of Boolean Operators to facilitate literature search. Examples of Boolean operators are AND NOT, OR, AND or NOT. These a-words are used together with conjunctions for purposes of either excluding or combining key words within literature searches (Gras, 2016). That has the effect that the results end up becoming more focused which means they are more productive. The approach eliminates unnecessary possible hits which goes a long way in saving the researchers time and effort.

Data Analysis

This study will endeavor to synthesize those themes the researcher will deem most important and will additionally, point out the contradictions and consensus within the literature. That will be done to provide a strong and critical review of different literary sources. Thematic grid analysis will be used to guide the process of synthesis. The thematic evaluation grid will allow for the recording of ideas and themes that are key from different literary sources and these will be linked to new themes and ideas (Anderson, Lees & Avery, 2015). That will enable the researcher to approach reading while also referring to already identified themes from an overview view point.

Anderson, D., Lees, B., & Avery, B. (2015, June). Reviewing the literature using the Thematic Analysis Grid. In European Conference on Research Methodology for Business and Management Studies. Valetta, Malta: Academic Conferences and Publishing International (pp. 455-457).

Benson, A., Li, D., & Shue, K. (2019). Promotions and the Peter Principle. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 134(4), 2085-2134.

Castelli, P. A. (2016). Reflective leadership review: a framework for improving organizational performance. Journal of Management Development.

Chan, E. W. (2018). Promotion, relative performance information, and the Peter Principle. The Accounting Review, 93(3), 83-103.

Sanctuary cities and policies have been on the rise in the recent past, and their implementation by various state and local authorities has been seen to impede the enforcement and effectiveness of federal immigration regulations. Some localities have created policies that restrict or entirely prohibit their officers from carrying out federal immigration-related actions, thereby fragmenting the delivery of federal immigration policies in such sanctuary jurisdictions.

The issue of sanctuary cities dates back to the 1980s but only found its way into the national immigration debate in 2015 (Fisher, 2016); and is one that has elicited mixed reactions, especially among federal government officials and local municipality leaders. The goal of this policy brief, therefore, is to examine the impact that these sanctuary cities have on the enforcement of federal immigration regulations within various jurisdictions. Whereas a number of federal leaders may have been elected on the basis of their promise to weed out (all) illegal migrants, some municipality leaders have been found to raise concerns about the negative feelings expressed- by the people who elected them- about deportation and likely family break-ups that may result. It is these mixed feelings that bring about the rise of sanctuary cities and policies. Federal officials are therefore confronted by quite a number of challenges in their implementation of policies targeted at clamping down on illegal immigrants, key among them the non-cooperation of local municipal officials who adopt a relaxed approach to their enforcement of federal immigration regulations within their jurisdictions with the aim of allaying and calming the fears of their people. The overall findings of the research are that the issue of sanctuary cities brings about a fragmentation in the delivery and implementation of immigration policies since the policies developed by the federal government are not fully enforced by the municipality leadership. Just what does this fragmented policy delivery portend

To effectively conduct this research, the research will stratify and match different sanctuary counties and non-sanctuary jurisdictions and compare them in order to facilitate a better understanding of the impacts or effects of sanctuary policies.

Sanctuary cities, typically found and common in North America, are those municipal jurisdictions which do not cooperate or limit their cooperation with the federal government in their efforts to implement national immigration policies. The leaders have often cited their wanting to address the negative feelings of their constituents about deportation and to allay the fears of deportation (Fisher, 2016) and likely resultant family break-ups among illegal immigrants in order to compel them to use healthcare and social services and to report crimes as their major reason for non-compliance with and enforcement of federal immigration law. These leaders set policies, de facto or de jure, that prohibit city employees, more so the police, from undertaking certain immigration-related tasks such as looking into the status (legal or illegal) of people who have been lawfully detained or stopped, providing immigration status information, arresting immigrants for civil violations, reporting illegal immigrants to or cooperating with federal immigration officials trough the acceptance of detainer requests that would potentially see people held for longer than they lawfully should be (Zamara, 2017).

Sanctuary localities or jurisdictions are not under any legal obligation to cooperate with federal immigration officials or engage in any actions aimed at enforcing federal immigration laws (Laura, 2014), and sanctuary city officials who do so may be held liable or in violation of local legal provisions (Martinez, Martinez and Cantor, 2018). Sanctuary policy supporters argue that the enactment of various executive orders (EOs) and policies touching on immigration will threaten the current cooperation between local authorities or law enforcement and the immigrant communities, as well as undermine their relations.

Non-sanctuary counties or states, on the other hand, fully cooperate with federal officials and enforce federal immigration rules. Opponents of sanctuary policies have maintained that a collaboration of the local jurisdictions and federal government or federal law enforcement agencies such as DHS is crucial to the removal of illegal migrants, who they term potential criminals, from the country.

The data from the comparison of sanctuary and non-sanctuary jurisdictions produced various results. Studies that investigated the association of sanctuary policies to crime showed that either the policies had no effect on crime or that crime rates in sanctuary cities were significantly lower (Loren, Benjamin and Stephen, 2016; Martinez, Martinez and Cantor, 2017) compared to non-sanctuary cities, which showed higher crime rates. In terms of the local economies, findings showed that sanctuary jurisdictions exhibited stronger economies (ranging from higher employment, higher household incomes, minimum reliance on the public for help, less poverty, and so on) than their non-sanctuary counterparts.

An analysis of these findings suggests that the above results could be attributed to the supporters view that federal immigration law enforcement is not a responsibility of the local municipalities, and that the resources that could have been otherwise used to this end could be diverted to better purposes (Pham and Van, 2012). As a result, local jurisdiction officials focus on ensuring they keep the communities safe, which in turn motivates the community members to be more involved in economic activities. Non-sanctuary jurisdictions, in their entanglement in the efforts to enforce federal immigration laws, may lose focus of these areas.

Conclusions

The cooperation and communication of state and local law enforcement agencies with the federal law enforcement agencies is important in dealing with the probable negative effects of undocumented immigration. This cooperation may act as a force multiplier making DHS and ICE more effective in carrying out their mandate. However, despite the potential benefits of local and federal law enforcement agencies cooperation (Lena, Angie & Nikki, 2016), some jurisdictions have chosen to adopt sanctuary policies that limit or even outlaw such cooperation. The adoption of sanctuary policies by various jurisdictions have had a number of impacts as has been discussed above. One pervasive consequence of these sanctuary policies is the refusal by local law enforcement of ICE detainer requests, which require that they inform ICE if they are about to let go a criminal immigrant or that they detain the criminal alien for a further period of 48 hours beyond the lawfully accepted 24 hours as they wait for ICE officials to come and pick them up. This refusal of retainer requests is an acknowledgement of the infringement of detainers on the Fourth Amendment and legal rights of an individual. Such localities are not in contravention of the law, as they still share fingerprint information with FBI, which also sends it over to DHS to conduct a status check of immigrants, but they refuse to detain individuals beyond the legally allowed period. In non-sanctuary jurisdictions, this compliance with detainers has been ruled by several courts as an infringement of the Fourth Amendment and legal rights (Laurence, 2016), and has led to a number of successful law suits- which proved costly to the jurisdictions- by individuals who were detained longer than necessary pursuant to a detainer request, as evidenced by the Galarza v. Szalcyzk case.

On the other hand, subsequent release of immigrants (some criminal) has seen the local authorities come under fire after incidents of major crime by the same immigrants shortly after their release (William and Lisa, 2016). For example, Juan Fransisco Lopez-Sanchez, a Mexico national who was illegally living in the U.S, shot and killed Kate Steinle who was walking with her father in July, 2015 three months after his release from custody. After his arrest and confession to the crime, it was found that he had 7 prior convictions and had been previously deported from the U.S five times; and despite a detainer request to detain him before being transferred to federal custody and eventually deported, the San Francisco sheriff’s office chose to release him from custody. These revelations led to the sheriff’s office being blamed for not honoring the federal immigration detainer request and establishing the city as a sanctuary city that “shielded’’ illegal immigrants from prosecution of criminal violations.

So while some good may come out of sanctuary policies, some of them or aspects of their implementation may be reckless, may pose safety risks to citizens and could be in contravention of the city officials’ responsibility of safeguarding their constituents.

If localities do not find a middle ground in their implementation of sanctuary policies or cooperate with federal agencies, then public safety may be compromised: criminal immigrants who could be involved in transnational gangs, drug dealing, human trafficking, terrorism and other major crimes may find their way into communities if local law enforcers do not cooperate with federal authorities, thereby comprising the safety of citizens and other documented immigrants.

It is the recommendation of this brief that municipality officials should therefore not turn a blind eye to immigration law violations on the basis that it is a federal matter since some of those violations (may) harm their constituents and communities. Localities should thus, adopt strategies to protect immigrants in their jurisdictions, while also maintaining open communication and collaborating with federal government and agencies to bring about a uniformity of systems that promote public safety and interests, and facilitates federal immigration agencies in the execution of their mandate.

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REFERENCES

American Civil Liberties Union, “Recent ICE Detainer Cases,” available at

American Civil Liberties Union, “Galarza v. Szalczyk,” available at

American Immigration Council: “Sanctuary” Policies: An Overview

Fisher, G., (2016). "Vancouver approves 'Access Without Fear' policy for undocumented immigrants". CBC News. Retrieved May 19, 2020.

Laura, L.S., (2014). "Local governments and immigration". In James Ciment; John Radzilowski (eds.). American Immigration: An Encyclopedia (2nd ed.). M. E. Sharpe.

Laurence, B., (2016). “The Trouble With Immigration Detainers,” National Immigration Forum, available at

Lena, G., Angie, J., & Nikki, M., (2016). “Local Options for Protecting Immigrants.” San Francisco: Immigrant Legal Resource Center

Loren, C., Benjamin, G., & Stephen, E., (2016). "Sanctuary cities do not experience an increase in crime". Washington Post.

Martínez, D.E., Martínez-Schuldt, R.D., Cantor, G., (2017). "Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on "Sanctuary Cities" and Crime". Sociology Compass .12: e12547.

Martínez, D.E., Martínez-Schuldt, R.D., Cantor, G., (2018). "Sanctuary Cities" and Crime. pp. 270–283

Pham, H., Van, P.H., (2012). "THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF LOCAL IMMIGRATION REGULATION: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS". Cardozo Law Review. 32: 485–518.

Shingler, B., (2017). "Montreal becomes 'sanctuary city' after unanimous vote". CBC News. CBC. Retrieved May 19, 2020.

William, A.K., & Lisa, S., (2016). Sanctuary Jurisdictions and Criminal Aliens: In Brief. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service.

Zamara, L., (2017). Sanctuary Cities and Immigration Detainers: A Primer. Washington, D.C.: Bipartisan Policy Center.