Servant Leadership in Non-Profit and Faith-Based Organizations

Introduction

Non-profit and faith-based organisations are faced with unique leadership challenges including the pressure to be more efficient in terms of necessitating operational changes as well as being more business-like. Non-profit and faith-based organisations rely on volunteers and donations and focuses on mission rather than profits thus require a unique approach to leadership. A number of scholars have studied servant leadership as a potential leadership style suitable for non-profit and faith-based organisations. The aim of this paper is to critically review three servant leadership publications with respect to its application non-profit and faith-based organisations. The three journal articles to be reviewed are: Palumbo 2016, “Challenging servant leadership in the nonprofit sector: The side effects of servant leadership”, Allen et al. 2018 and “Exploring a model of servant leadership, empowerment, and commitment in non-profit organizations”, Adams, Salina, and Eppinga 2014, “An examination of servant-leadership characteristics displayed by Edmund Rice Christian Brothers.

The rationale behind the choice of this research topic especially as it affects the faith based organisations got to do with the emergence of the concept servant leadership by Greenleaf and the vested interest of the faith based organisations in same.(Boone and Makhani , 2012). On a different note from other leadership styles servant leadership was first embraced by the religious organisations and other non-profit vision driven organisations. The religious organisations especially drew a parallel between the concept and Jesus’ style and teachings on leadership. “You know that the leaders of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their high officials exercise authority over them. Not so among you. Instead whoever wants to be a leader among you must be your servant.” Matthew 20.25,26.

The author of the appraisal study is a practitioner in a faith-based organisation and actively saddled with leadership responsibility. As a leader under another leader it was considered important to study the leadership style of the overall leader vis avis the goal of the organisation and critically observe what requires change, what to sustain and where they could possibly effect the former and/or reinforce the latter.

Review 1: Palumbo, R., 2016. Challenging servant leadership in the nonprofit sector: The side effects of servant leadership. The Journal of Nonprofit Education and Leadership, 6(2).

The Study Question

Challenging Servant Leadership in the Nonprofit Sector: The Side Effects of Servant Leadership

In the light that there is scarce literature on servant leadership in the non-profit literature, the author sought to contextualise the concept of servant leadership in the non-profit sector hypothesising that servant leadership is the most suitable style of leadership in the non-profit sector. The study question however is misleading as it gives an impression of an interrogative study aimed to draw a contrast between the pros and cons of servant leadership in non profit sector. It is often underestimated how much reflective and interrogative processes required in developing a research question can chart the course and direction of the study.

Aim and objectives of the study

The purpose of the study is conveyed rationally in that the author first shows a gap in literature; that is, shows the struggle for non-profit organisations to find a suitable leadership style then based on previous literature hypothesises that servant leadership would fit in the non-profit sector. In addition, the author is cognisant that servant leadership is somewhat a new concept in the leadership literature for non-profit organisations thus heeding to the call for providing empirical and conceptual insights about the characteristics, role, and effects of servant leadership in non-profit organisations is worthwhile. Therefore, the topic and aim of the research are essential and the study is worth conducting.

The author does not clearly identify the objectives of the research paper. Although in the introduction section the author hints to the purpose of this study, it is not clear what will be done in order to achieve this aim. It is later in the following sections that the author clarifies the core objective as exploring the role played by servant leaders in the non-profit organisations but it is until towards the end of chapter two that the author clarifies he is focusing on the negative effects of servant leadership on the behaviour of followers in non-profit organisations. The author does not also have hypotheses but they emerge as by-products of the study. According to Saunders et al. (2016), the aim and objectives of research should be clearly identified after an author/authors provide the background information so that readers can have a deeper understanding of the context of the study as early as in the introduction chapter. Therefore, it can be concluded that Palumbo 2016 has no clear objectives whereas the what is written is spread through the introduction and literature review chapters making it hard to understand the objectives of the study.

Study Design

The author adopted observation as the primary data collection instrument. In this approach, the author volunteered in a non-profit organisation and during this period observed how servant leadership affected the behaviour of followers. According to Jorgensen (2015), participant observation allows a researcher to collect valuable information that would not have been collected if the study population knows it was being watched. Therefore, the participant observation technique was suitable for this study as it would help the researcher collect information on natural behaviour of followers as they were not aware they were being observed, thus less likely to change their behaviour. On the other hand, Takyi (2015) writes that participant observation helps a researcher live with the research population and thus collect data that provides in depth answers to the research question. Therefore, adopting the participant observation technique was appropriate in helping the researcher understand how servant leadership affects the behaviour of followers in the non-profit organisation. Dahlke, Hall and Phinney (2015) assert that for participant observation to yield the desired results, a research should complete observation in three phases namely descriptive observation, focussed observation, and selective observation. In this study, Palumbo (2016) collected data in the three phases, which implies that the collected information was appropriate in answering the research questions.

Taylor et al. (2015) write that the major limitation of participant observation approach to data collection is that data is collected from the researcher’s point of view thus what is worthwhile to one researcher is not necessarily to another researcher. Cognisant of this limitation, Palumbo (2016) conducted interviews and focus groups with an aim of enhancing the richness of the data collected. Therefore, it is evident that the researcher was aware of the limitations of the adopted research methodology and employed more tools in order to collect more valid and reliable information. Nonetheless, the author does not clarify the size of the sample nor the characteristics that informed their selection into the study.

Findings

The author groups the findings into five themes namely followers’ disempowerment, followers’ reliance on the leader, followers’ negligence, leader’s paternalism, and leader’s protective behaviour. First, the author establishes that the followers are reluctant to take initiative in absence of the leader. Second, the study shows that followers have low or no confidence in making decisions without getting approval from the leader. Third, the results show that followers do not succeed in challenging environments without the help of the leader. Fourth, the results reveal that leaders defend and protect their followers from organisational blame. Fifth, the results show that the leader normally assumes good intentions of the followers and does not blame them for their faults.

The findings are adequately described and objectivity is upheld as the researcher incorporates the data from the interviews and the focus groups. The results are presented in tables that are clear and easy to read and understand. The way in which data is presented matched the descriptions provided and the conclusions made. The results are discussed in relation to the aim of the study but it would have been better if the author discusses the results in relation to what other scholars have established in the topic. Such as approach would have helped identify the contribution this study has made to the existing literature and point to limitations that future researchers should focus on (Gray 2019). It would have also shown the extent to which the findings of this study are aligned to those of previous findings and the degree to which they vary making the results more applicable (Quinlan et al. 2019).

Review 2: Allen, S., Winston, B.E., Tatone, G.R. and Crowson, H.M., 2018. Exploring a model of servant leadership, empowerment, and commitment in nonprofit organizations. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 29(1), pp.123-140.

The Study Question

Exploring a model of servant leadership, empowerment, and commitment in nonprofit organizations. Nonprofit Management and Leadership.

Having observed that servant leadership and structural and psychological empowerments in the non-profit sector are under-researched areas, the authors aim at finding out the mediating role of structural and psychological empowerment in the relationship between servant leadership behaviours and followers’ commitment in non-profit organisations. In the study area an awful lot of work has been done on servant leadership in general but not enough work on its relation to empowerment and consequently commitment on the parts of the employees and volunteers in non-profit sector. The study question takes a holistic approach to the study by covering both empowerment and commitment. This makes it to study servant leadership from both action and reaction perspective between employers and employees.

Aim and Objectives

. The purpose of the study is rationally constructed in that it is informed by a gap in literature: previous research has studied the role of structural and psychological empowerments independently in relation to servant leadership in non-profit organisations thus exploring the mediating effect of psychological and structural effect in relation to servant leadership in non-profit organisations in a single study is a unique approach to the topic under investigation. The authors hypothesise that psychological and structural empowerment are mechanisms through which servant leaders can improve followers’ commitment in non-profit organisations. The study lacks clear objectives on how the research aim will be achieved. According to Shoket (2014), research objectives identify the types of knowledge to be generated thus serve as indicators of what to be anticipated of the study. Therefore, without clear outline of the study objectives, it is impossible to anticipate what the research findings will be in this study. The study also lacks clear hypotheses thus impossible to tell what the researchers anticipate to be the study outcome.

Study Design

The study adopts the survey research strategy. The researchers invite 875 full-time and part-time employees to complete an online survey but only 128 persons accepted the invitation. The researchers ensure that most of the full-time employees have supervisory roles but they were not considered managers. The 10-item Essential Servant Leadership Behaviours (ESLB) scale (developed by Winston and Field’s 2015) was used to measure how followers perceived the behaviours exhibited by their supervisors in relation to the behaviours of servant leaders. Structural empowerment was measured using Laschingerr et al. (2001) 12-item Conditions for Work Effectiveness Questionnaire II with minor modifications being made to suit the study context. The dimensions of psychological empowerment were measured using Spreitzer’s (1995) 12-item survey while organisational commitment was measured using Cook and Wall’s (1980) 9-item scale.

The survey strategy seems appropriate to collect data that would adequately answer the research question. According to Saunders et al. (2016), the survey strategy helps a research to collect large datasets from a sizeable population over a short period of time and in an economical way. On the other hand, Nardi (2015) states that the survey strategy helps a research collect standardised information, which makes data analysis easier and less time-consuming. Therefore and owing to the benefits of surveys, this research strategy was appropriate for the study. In relation to the measurement scales, the researchers provide adequate information about the scales and references for more information, which ensures readers can verify the information used in this study. In addition, the researchers use different scales for different variables, which is essential in meeting the research objective. Regarding the sample size, a sample of 128 respondents is large enough to warrant generalisation of the study results. Nonetheless, the response rate was significantly low thus future researchers could work with a much larger sample. Incorporating respondents with supervisory roles is also appropriate in establishing how well servant leaders promote organisational commitment in non-profit organisations.

Findings

The findings of the study show that servant leaders create and sustain empowering work conditions, which supports psychological empowerment among employees thus increasing commitment to the organisation. Additionally, the findings reveal that followers’ perceptions of servant leadership are strongly correlated to structural empowerment, which implies that servant leaders empower organisational structures. The researchers then discuss these results making reference to previous research, which according to Dumay et al. (2016) is essential in adding to the breadth of a research study. In the discussion section, the researchers also link their findings to the reviewed literature, which helps show the relationship between the literature review and the study findings (Ghauri et al. 2020). The findings are adequately described and explained. Basic data is presented in clear and well-labelled tables making it easier for researcher to understand the results. Finally, the researchers identify and explain the implications of their findings to practitioners and future researchers, which is recommended by Quinlan et al. (2019).

Review 3: Adams, E.J., Salina, C. and Eppinga, J., 2014. AN EXAMINATION OF SERVANT-LEADERSHIP CHARACTERISTICS DISPLAYED BY EDMUND RICE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. The International Journal of Servant-Leadership, 10(1), pp.151-175.

The Study Question

An Examination of Servant-Leadership Characteristics Displayed By Edmund Rice Christian Brothers

The study question is explorative as the author being a teacher in St Thomas More college, a Catholic College founded by the Christian Brothers as observed the leadership styles of successive leaders of the Christian Brothers and juxtapose the style with servant leadership model established by Greenleaf.(APA , 2013). There is every likelihood that the researcher has had personal relationships with some or many of the five participants. This has established a possibility of potential sources of bias which could have been minimised if the study approach were different.

Aim and Objectives of the study

The aim of the study is to examine the extent to which the Brothers’ belief system reflects the qualities of servant leadership as identified by Greenleaf (1970). The authors identify the qualities of a servant leader as one who serves the needs of others, committed to the growth of others, inspires followers to lead, and committed to helping the disadvantaged and the poor in the society. The paper has a clear aim; it identified and explain the problem that prompts it and shows how the study will respond to the problem under investigation. That is, the researcher acknowledges that the Christian Brothers’ behaviour is aligned to the qualities of a servant leader and therefore set out to examine how the perception of these Brothers relate to Greenleaf’s (1970) four characteristics of a servant leader in order to ascertain whether the Brothers’ behaviour is really that of a servant leader. The study has clearly defined objectives, which are formulated around the four characteristics of servant leaders as identified by Greenleaf (1970). This ensures the reader knows what the study aspires to achieve and easily follows through the paper to see if the objectives were attained (Ormston et al. 2014).

Research Design

The survey research strategy was adopted for this study with qualitative semi-structured interviews used as data collection instruments. A sample of 5 respondents was selected for the study using the purposive sampling technique. In this study, the five selected persons had directly or indirectly served at the selected organisation as Christian Brothers. Their selection was informed by the distinguished record of service they held as they were renowned for their dedication to the mission of the Foundation. According to Etikan et al. (2016), purposive sampling is meant to contribute to a better understanding of a theoretical framework thus necessitating that data be collected from sources that are proficient and well-informed. Therefore, the authors in this study are justified to have used purposive sampling as through it they were able to identify a few but knowledgeable data sources. Regarding the data collection instrument, semi-structured interviews best suit the study as they help a researcher collect detailed information from a small population (Newcomer et al. 2015). The greatest limitation of the methodology is identification of the participants: the researchers outline the names of the five selected samples and give their biography which is a breach to research ethics. According to Saunders et al. (2016), maintaining anonymity and confidentiality should be upheld in any study to minimise harm to the study participants. As such, it would have been ethical for the researchers to leave out the names of the participants and instead use pseudonyms for minimal harm to these participants.

Findings

Thematic analysis is adopted for the study, which seems very appropriate based on the objectives of the study: it has helped the researchers analyse the collected data in relation to the four characteristics of a servant leader. According to Braun et al. (2019), thematic analysis allows a researcher to see and interpret shared meanings and experiences and therefore, the researchers were able to relate the experiences of the five respondents through thematic analysis. The study findings reveal that although the personal experiences of the respondents differed, their stories show that the behaviours, values and beliefs ascribed to Christian Brothers significantly align with Greenleaf’s (1970) four characteristics of servant leaders. In the discussing section, the authors relate their findings to those of others in previous research, which is recommended by Quinlan et al. (2019). The discussion flows in relation to the themes making it easier for readers to see how every research objective was attained. Therefore, the researchers have been able to follow all the research objectives and achieve the aim of their study.

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