Qualitative Research Approaches

Why a Researcher Might Use a Qualitative Research Approach

Developing a valid, reliable and robust research study requires a clear identification of the correct research approach that would particularly achieve the stated research objectives (Hennink et al 2020). One of the popular research approaches used in contemporary research is the qualitative research approach (Glesne, 2016). Against this backdrop, this section of the essay seeks to evaluate why one would use a qualitative research approach in criminology. Thus, there will be identification and justification of qualitative research approaches, as well as identification of the limitations of such approaches.

First, Taylor et al (2015) define qualitative research approach as the use of conversational communication and open-ended data collection techniques to achieve research objectives. Therefore, qualitative research approaches help in seeking the data on what people think about the phenomenon under investigation, as well as why they think so (Smith, 2015). Therefore, asserts that qualitative research approaches entail different techniques used to gain in-depth information from study populations through questioning and further probing. Here, we identify, explore and justify some of the significant qualitative research approaches used by modern researchers.

Interpretivist Research philosophy

McCusker & Gunaydin (2015) remarked that a research philosophy is a belief held by a researcher on how the data should be collected, analysed and used. Also known as ‘research paradigm,’ there are various research philosophies that are adaptable depending on the underlying research approach. For instance, according to Brennen (2017), researchers often use the interpretivism research philosophy in qualitative research because of many fundamental reasons: first, believers in the interpretive research philosophy collect data based on the perception of the people experiencing the phenomenon under investigation (Patten & Newhart, 2017). For example, if a researcher wants to conduct qualitative research on the risk factors for criminality among women, they will collect data from the people who have already experienced women criminality. Therefore, the interpretive research philosophy, as a qualitative research approach can be used to understand the true nature of a phenomenon from the people experiencing it by gathering data on their perceptions.

Qualitative research approaches may also be selected for use in instances where the researcher seeks to use data collection methods that involve sustained contact with the participants (Williman, 2017). Through the use of qualitative approaches such as inductive reasoning, the researcher can adopt less structured strategies that help in understanding the phenomenon under investigation; along with the context within which it occurs (Silverman, 2016). For instance, a researcher adopting qualitative research approaches would use inductive reasoning to investigate the problems faced by former convicts and their perceptions of how the criminal justice system can be improved. Through inductive reasoning, the researcher can use specific information to develop a general theory or understanding of the research topic.

A researcher might also adopt qualitative research approaches when they intend to understand subjective human experiences through the use of non-statistical approaches of data analysis. For instance, if a researcher intends to understand ‘women experiences of domestic violence,’ the researcher would select qualitative research methodology to achieve the objective because such approaches are comparable to a naturalistic enquiry that enables an exploration of complex human experiences. There are several theoretical underpinnings hat may support the selection of qualitative research approaches. First, according to Silverman (2016), qualitative research approaches allow for a holistic and subjective exploration and development of a theory regarding the phenomenon under investigation. Secondly, as Roulston & Shelton (2015) assert, qualitative research may allow the generation of information that depicts the true nature of attitudes and perceptions of the participants regarding domestic violence. The qualitative research approaches do not entail any over-simplification of the findings nor the use of statistical analysis that may distort the true nature of the participants’ experiences (Rosenthal, 2016).

The available data may also trigger a researcher to use qualitative approaches. First, Almalki (2016) argues that if a researcher selects an improper data collection technique, the results might end up invalid. Therefore, the available options for data collection techniques are important elements that might influence researchers’ choice of qualitative research approach (Mihas, 2019). Through qualitative research approaches, a researcher is capable of developing and implementing a detailed evaluation and analysis of the subject materials because relies less on metrics of gathered information and instead concentrates on the verbal details of the information. According to Stage & Manning (2015), the focus on subtleties contributes to more detailed data that gives room for the development of more detailed insights into the study.

Sometimes, researchers in the criminology area depend on fluid information that comes in intervals. In such a scenario, qualitative research approaches may be helpful because they include a variety of data collection options so that if one data collection technique does not yield the desired data, then there is room to switch to another data collection tool (Lindlof & Taylor 2017). According to Salazar et al (2015), this creates more opportunities for the researcher to gather a variety of data than facing the limitations of one type of data, more fulfilling experience to the researcher.

In other scenarios, the researcher is interested in the predictability of data and this creates a need for qualitative research approaches. Palinkas et al (2015) identify a common mistake among researchers who use qualitative approaches, that a respondent’s perspective can be generalized to the entire group. However, this is only possible in a homogenous group or when the participants are in a similar circumstance, have similar views of the world, or when they have similar goals. However, qualitative research approaches enable the researcher to identify such homogenous groups and collect individualistic data that is predictive of the entire group (Mayer, 2015). This implies that the data gathered through qualitative research approaches have the advantage of being predictive.

McCusker & Gunaydin (2015) argues that some researchers can select qualitative research approaches because they enable data gathering through fluid structures. Qualitative research approaches gather data through experiences and observations, and this means that an experienced researcher has the opportunity to ask follow-up questions. For instance, in a study of women’s experiences of domestic violence, the fluid nature of qualitative data collection techniques can allow the researcher to ask probing questions that might lead to the identification of other domestic violence victims.

Limitations of Qualitative Research Approaches

While qualitative research approaches are associated with several advantages, some of which have been explored herein, this research approach may also present some limitations that affect its application. For instance, Glesne (2016) strongly believe that a researcher would end up with highly subjective data if they used qualitative approaches. While the personal nature of data is associated with many advantages, it might raise some issues of bias because what one researcher might consider important information for the study is not what another researcher might consider important (Brennen, 2017). Thus, the fact that qualitative approach creates an opportunity for researchers to have an individual opinion on what data is important means that the data can be overly generalized or inaccurate because it relies on the researcher’s subjectivism.

Tracy (2019) complains that qualitative approaches lead to the collection of data whose rigidity is difficult to evaluate. Particularly, Tracy (2019) argues that qualitative data is often based on the respondents’ perspectives and this makes it difficult to ascertain the level of rigidity of the information gathered from them. Ideally, the respondents may tend to remember information in their most desired ways, and this makes the information more fondly remembered even if the actual events may have been unpleasant to them at that time. Ultimately, the inherent human desire to look at things from a good perspective always affects the validity of information gathered through qualitative approaches. For instance, in a study to evaluate women’s experience of domestic violence, the participants might not be capable of explaining some experiences as bad or unpleasant they were to them.

Qualitative data collection approaches often yield overwhelming data (Hennink et al 2020). This means that the researcher must always take time to sort the large chunks of data to identify the key points and information; through a time-consuming process. The process is also too subjective because what one researcher might consider important information might be considered less important by another researcher (Brennen, 2017). Unless the researcher sets some standards of what is considered important information, cultivating through the large data to identify important information might be tiresome.

The scientific community tend to have a negative attitude towards data collected through qualitative approaches, and this makes a majority not to accept qualitative study findings because of their subjective nature (Brennen, 2017). According to Glesne (2016), this implies that scientists tend to require a second qualitative study to validate the findings of the first study. This proves to be an expensive and time-consuming process before the actual research findings can be obtained and used.

Last but not least, qualitative research might be difficult to replicate. According to McCusker & Gunaydin (2015), scholars always want research results that are verifiable and can be duplicated; before they accept the study as valid. However, this is difficult to achieve with qualitative studies because the data inherently has some informational bias carried from the informant. This implies that the researcher has a limited scope of data gathering regardless of having a fluid-structure to work with.

Introduction

The section of the paper involves an interview data analysis on the topic of anxiety and fear of crime. The essay will demonstrate the author’s qualitative analysis techniques and how interview transcripts can be analysed and turned into useful data that answers a particular research question. During the analysis, the researcher will concentrate on three specific research questions namely:

How crime has impacted on the respondents’ lives

Accounts of specific unsafe situations the respondents have found themselves on

The things apart from crime that have made the respondents fearful

These questions will form the thematic framework within which the interview data will be analysed, with an aim of identifying the respondents’ experience of crime and fear of crime.

The analysis

The first question that the respondents were asked was how crime impacted their lives. In response, a majority of the respondents noted that crime was a source of loss through property loss and damage. Moreover, crime was depicted as a major cause of disturbance to people’s peace because they could not engage in normal activities such as sleeping just because they had to keep a watch on their property. The following are some of the responses from interviewees:

INTERVIEWEE2: Minimal really. Nothing that's sort of er, like somebody breaking into the house and hitting them on the 18 head with something or anything like that. There's been burglaries. But nobody's been hurt in the 19 process. I mean, you hear about - say burglaries and vandalism, especially in summer time. The old 20 people, they go out in the garden and leave their door open and the little kids - well they call them kids, I 21 don't know Whether they are or not - nip in the back door and pinch their pensions and that.

Responses from one interviewee indicated that even if they have never experienced crime, they know of people who have suffered a lot of loss and damage out of crime. The respondent said that:

INTERVIEWER: Maybe you could start off by telling me how crime has impacted on your life, What - any effects that it's had on you since you've been living here.

INTERVIEWEE3: Actually em, it's not had any impact on me at all because em, I've never come across it as such. Er, I've 7 heard of people saying there's been vandalism and this, that and the other. But as regards to real crime, 8 I've never come across it on here at all.

Meanwhile, the interview responses indicate that bulgraly is common criminal activity that contributes to damage or loss of property. The following are some of the responses illustrating so:

Interviewee: Yes. Since we lived here. I suppose as you get older you get more er, conscious of er, being careful you 83 see. I mean when you're young you don't think about. I mean my daughter she says "oh mum" she says 84 "I leave my door" I said "yes, you'll be ruining it one of these days." She goes "tut." I’m getting an old 85 woman you see. But she's been burgled you see. 86

INTERVIEWER: Your daughter? 88

INTERVIEWEE3: They were away on holiday actually. And they broke the patio window and got in that way.

The results also indicate how individuals undergo physical pain as a result of crime. Some respondents illustrated how attacks from criminals led them to pain and suffering by being knocked down and suffering physical injury.

INTERVIEWER: Mmm. Right. Em, can you think of –anything that has made you feel fearful?

INTERVIEWEE4: Em, yes I have when you hear about these muggings. And the old people that keep getting knocked down by youngsters and stealing. I mean you read it nearly every week don't you? Of some old lady being knocked down and mugged.

INTERVIEWEE2: Erm, the first - the first time…’im about 1/2 past 4 in the morning, and we got up at 135 20 past 4, there was no car. Er, the second time, which was 7 month after, we got the same car back and 136 it was locked on the drive, alarmed, the drive gates were bolted and they cut through the drive bolts, took 137 the alarm system off and pushed it off the drive. And that time we didn't get it back…..

Therefore, the interviews have demonstrated that crime is an impactful element within the community that affects the life of residents through loss and damage of property. The data has clearly showed that criminals act against the economic welfare of the community by damaging their stealing and damaging their property.

In an attempt to further understand the respondent’s experience of crime and fear of crime, the researcher asked them to mention some of the unsafe situations they have experienced in their lives. While there were divergent responses to this question an important one was concerning the old who would feel unsafe without home security alarms. The response was as follows:

INTERVIEWEE3: They - they're 32 personal alarms that they can have, which the tenants association dish out, free of charge for them. But 33 em, I suppose it makes them feel safer. The tenants association decided that the old people were 34 frightened of muggers and that, 'cos they'd heard about it on the television and all this. And they were 35 that em, got themselves worked up - living on their own - especially the people that lived on their own…

This particular response demonstrates how technology has come to the rescue of elderly people who live alone by making them feel safer. Nonetheless, the responses also highlight the plight of other populations such as older women who live alone. For instance, the respondent said that:

INTERVIEWER And how did, how did em, how was it established that older people and, say single women 41 living on the estate, were .worried or more worried than they had been, or whatever.

INTERVIEWEE4: That’s the main sort or issue in terms of the fears

This question was combines with other question evaluating how crime has made the respondents fearful. In the process, the theme of vulnerability emerged, where one respondent indicated that whereas he may not feel vulnerable to crime, he would not open the door to anybody at night as a result of fear. See below:

INTERVIEWER: So you don't even feel vulnerable when you're here on your own?

INTERVIEWEE5: No. No. But I wouldn't open the door to anybody at night. I always - if anybody comes at night - I always open the curtain and look to see who it is first. And if it's somebody I don't know I just don't bother 78 answering the door. I always keep my door locked you see. I wouldn't leave my door open.

INTERVIEWER2: Is that something you've always done? 81

INTERVIEWEE3: Yes. Since we lived here. I suppose as you get older you get more er, conscious of er, being careful you 83 see. I mean when you're young you don't think about. I mean my daughter she says "oh mum" she says 84 "I leave my door" I said "yes, you'll be ruining it one of these days." She goes "tut." I’m getting an old 85 woman you see. But she's been burgled you see.

When asked about the fear of feeling unsafe, one respondent gave answers to suggest that there are certain disadvantaged groups of people such as the old age, the young ones or those who live alone who are more fearful of crime that other groups of populations. For instance, the respondent said that:

INTERVIEWER: Has it ever had any effect on you, on your feelings of safety?

INTERVIEWEE4: Em, no not really. Because as I say when we go out shopping and we go for pensions we go together. So there's 2 of us you see all the time. I don't do it on my own you see. If I was a widow it might affect me 116 different. Or if I lived on my own it might affect me different. I might be more timid. But as it is, I haven't any fear really. Because I should turn around and (laugh) have a go back at them you see. (laugh). I mean 118 I'm a bit bolshy at times.

INTERVIEWEE1: Yeah. My little girl 'ad got up to go to toilet. Couldn't get back to sleep. This was very early in morning. Must 'ave been about 1/2 past 4, 1/4 to 5. She decided to go and wake her brother up

Similar remarks were made by another respondent who illustrated that having a disability makes him fear crime more that he did before he got disabled. This implies that failure to address issues of crime and insecurity affects the vulnerable populations than they do to the ordinary persons. For instance, one respondent with disability remarked that:

INTERVIEWEE1:….Well the only thing that you've got to be wary about really is er, like at the moment I've er, I've got a 271 disability because - on account of this injury at work I had to retire and now I'm having to walk about with 272 a stick. And I dread - you know, I'm a bit nervous about going out at night. Er, you never who's at back of you. Whereas when I were fit it wouldn't have bothered me…..Well I'm not nervous, it's just if I - I - if I hear anybody er, you know, at back of me It startles me, you know 286 what I mean? When I were younger I never used to be bothered 'cos I've always been pretty active. I 287 always felt I could defend myself.

In totality, these responses give interesting revelations to people’s experiences with crime and fear of crime. The results have illustrated how crime contributes to people’s damage and loss of property. Besides, the interviews have highlighted how crime makes people fearful, especially special groups in the community such as children, the old and the disabled.

Research Proposal

Criminality among women has increasingly become a challenge in the criminal justice system. Crime perpetration, previously known to be more rampant among men than women, is increasingly taking toll of the society, from the women’s side (Abraham, 2016). The proposed study seeks to evaluate the risk factors for criminality among women in UK society. The study will, therefore, be interested in identifying the reasons behind the increasing cases of criminality among the female population in the UK. Consequently, the proposed research topic is ‘a study to evaluate the risk factors for criminality among women in the society.’

The rationale of the Study

Understanding the risk factors for criminality among women is an important research topic within the criminal justice system. Biber et al (2016) while argues that certain social factors trigger women’s involvement in crime, little research has been done to exact identity these factors, let alone developing effective measures to reduce this menace. In the study by Balraj (2016), the researchers assert that the lack of knowledge about the risk factors for criminality among women has been a significant contributor to the available inadequate measures to reduce the rate of crime in the society because anti-crime campaigns and sensitization program cannot be developed without a clear problem to be addressed. This justifies the need for a research study that gives empirical evidence on the cause of criminality among women. Whereas the UK government has established good crime regulating and public security policies to address issues of criminality in the society, no significant changes in the rate of violence have been experienced (Home Office, 2009), meaning that these policies and measures may not be effective. More importantly, the UK government spends a lot of resources within the criminal justice system to address the issue of insecurity and therefore the proposed study will make a significant contributor of knowledge as a stepping stone towards a secure society (Cox, 2012). Against this backdrop, the proposed study will seek to address the following research question:

Research Question

What are the risk factors for criminality among women?

Research Methods

Tracy (2019) argues that developing an elaborate and well-structured research methodology ensures the reliability and validity of the study outcomes. Hence, the worst mistake that a researcher can ever make is to begin a research process without laying out the tools and strategies of how the study will be carried out. Therefore, this section highlights the different research approaches that will be taken in completing the proposed study.

Research Philosophy

McCusker & Gunaydin (2015) define research philosophy as the researcher’s belief of how the data will be collected, analysed, interpreted and applied. While a researcher can either take a positivist, interpretivism or pragmatic philosophies, the proposed study will take an interpretivism philosophy due to several theoretical underpinnings. For instance, believers in the interpretivism research philosophy believe that a phenomenon can best be understood from the perception of the people experiencing it. Therefore, by adopting the interpretivism research philosophy, the researcher intends to understand the risk factors of criminality from the perception of the people experiencing it. Adopting the interpretivism research philosophy will ensure that a holistic understanding of women criminality is undertaken, thereby understanding its risk factors.

Tracy (2019) defines research design as the approach taken by a researcher to achieve the objectives or test the underlying research hypotheses. The two main research design used by contemporary researchers are qualitative and quantitative research designs. Qualitative research design entails examining subjective human experiences and opinions using non-statistical methods while quantitative research design entails testing theories and hypotheses using statistical methods (Hennink et al 2020). Because the proposed study seeks opinions on the risk factors for criminality among women, the study will use the qualitative research design. Another theoretical underpinning of why the proposed study selected qualitative research design is that it is comparable to a naturalistic enquiry (Glesne, 2016), whereby the complex experience of women criminality, together with its risk factors is understood. The other reason for the selection of qualitative research design in the proposed study is that qualitative research designs give a holistic approach to the phenomenon under investigation to develop a theory (Hennink et al 2020). McCusker & Gunaydin (2015) also argue that qualitative research designs present an opportunity to understand the complex nature of humans, a reason that makes it appropriate for evaluating the risk factors for criminality among women.

Research Approach

A researcher can either take an inductive or deductive research approach. According to Tracy (2019), deductive research approach entails the use of general information to determine a specific theory or understanding, while inductive research approach entails the use of specific knowledge to derive a general idea, conclusion or theory. Glesne (2016) observes that as opposed to a deductive approach, the inductive research approach is generally qualitative, and therefore supports the understanding of a phenomenon from the perspective of people experiencing it. The main aim of the proposed study is to understand the risk factors for criminality among women. This forms the basis of inductive research approach because it allows for a less structured approach of enquiry, thereby creating an opportunity for the researcher to comprehensively understand the phenomenon under investigation (Tracy, 2019).

Data collection

The data collection technique is an important element of any research because the validity of study results largely depends on the suitability of data collection techniques adopted by the researcher (McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015). In qualitative research approaches, a researcher can collect data through various means including interviews, observations and questionnaires; depending on their respective suitability for the research objective. In the proposed study, the researcher will depend on semi-structured interviews as the sole method of data collection. Particularly, semi-structured interviews have been selected for the proposed study for various theoretical reasons. According to McCusker & Gunaydin (2015), they allow for the collection of comparative information; and allow much flexibility for the researcher to develop a more in-depth manner. Moreover, semi-structured interviews as a qualitative approach reduce the chances of research bias thereby enhancing the reliability of the study findings (Hennink et al 2020). Nonetheless, Glesne (2016) observes that a major limitation of the semi-structured interview is that it is time-consuming to conduct the interviews and gather all the necessary information.

Research sampling

The proposed studies will target former women convicts from a selected rehabilitation centre in the UK. Three rehabilitation centres will be selected and the facility’s heads will be approached for permission to conduct the study. The study will conveniently select five participants from each rehabilitation centre (N=15), who will be invited in 30-minute interview sessions for data collection. There are several reasons for the selection of convenient sampling for the proposed study. First, Glesne (2016) defines convenient sampling as a non-probability sampling that involves the selection of study participants from part of the population that is most available. Thus, the use of convenient sampling in the proposed study will ensure that time and resources are saved because the researcher will rely on the most available participants. Nonetheless, one of the prospective limitations of convenient sampling is that it may contribute to a biased data gathering because it can only gather data from a specific group of people who are not a good representative of the entire population (Brennen, 2017). This implies that by using convenience sampling, the generalizability of the proposed study will be a bit limited.

Data Analysis

Qualitative research approaches may yield a large amount of data that may be overwhelming (Hennink et al 2020). Considering that the researcher will collect data through interviews to a point of saturation (i.e. where no additional data can be achieved), the large amount of data that might be realized can risk the achievements of the research objective within the selected timeline. Therefore, the researcher will adopt a thematic analysis approach in analysing the data. According to Glesne (2016), thematic analysis is appropriate for large volumes of data because it entails the organization of data, through coding, into analysable themes of categories. The thematic analysis process will begin with familiarization with the data before developing codes and themes (Tracy, 2019). The themes will then be reviewed, defined and named before developing a comprehensive write-up on them.

Ethical Considerations

Because the proposed study will involve human participants, several ethical considerations will be made to guard the integrity of the study outcomes. For instance, the study will maintain the integrity of its outcomes by maintaining the anonymity of all the respondents. Besides, the researcher will ensure that all the participants sign a consent form indicating that they willingly participated in the study. Meanwhile, the researcher will only begin after obtaining ethical approval from the university’s ethics committee.

Dissemination

After completing the study and achieving the research objectives, the researcher will share the research report with various stakeholders who might be interested in its outcome. For instance, the report will be shared in the university’s repository for anyone within the academic space to access. Besides, the report will be published in a selected journal article for both peer-review and sharing with other criminology scholars.

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