The Complex and Evolving Concept of Marriage in Anthropological Study

Introduction

The question of marriage and whether people should marry has been a discussion that has been explored in anthropological circles. While there has been a very robust discussion surrounding marriage, a concrete definition of marriage does not exist. The reason that there a concrete definition of marriage does not exist is due to the fact that the institution has changed and morphed in relation to the epoch of history and the culture within which marriage exists. Different cultures and different eras of history have had different views of marriage and what it means. As such, it makes sense why a concrete definition of marriage has not been formulated. The debate within anthropological circles has also related to whether marriage is universal or not amongst human societies. The differences in understanding what marriage makes it a challenge to come up with a universal definition of marriage. For the purposes of this paper, marriage will take on many definitions. Combining all those different definitions, marriage is, “a legal contract, a religious covenant or a social union which can occur between a man and a woman, two men, two women, a man and multiple women (polygyny), and a woman and multiple men polyandry” (Dartmouth 2019). The stated definition of marriage was selected since it seems to encompass modern times by acknowledging that in contemporary times, marriage may occur between two men or two women.

A Brief History of Marriage

In Rome and Ancient Greece, marriage seemed to follow the same pattern. Marriages were arranged between two families; men tended to marry in their 20s while women would get married as early as their early or late teens (Lambert 2018). The more prestigious a family that one belonged to the more marriage was a big deal. One could not simply marry into any family that they wanted. Their marriage choice had to be something that would bolster the family’s fortune, and that is why it was the parents who arranged the marriage (Lambert 2018). People from a lower socioeconomic status usually had more choice as to the person that they could marry. In a sense, the marriages of that era revolved around hypogamy. People could only marry individuals with certain characteristics; the rich tended to marry amongst the rich while the poor tended to marry amongst themselves too. Around the 16th Century, marriage tended to revolve around the church, and the concept of divorce did not exist (Yesterday 2019). However, the concept of annulment did exist, and it revolved around the church declaring that the marriage was not valid, to begin with. In Britain, there was the Marriage Act of 1753 which declared that the validity of marriage would only occur if the ceremony had occurred within a church (Lambert 2018). The above information shows that marriage in one form or another has existed in every time, history, culture and civilization. While the definition of what marriage is has changed over the years, the basic concept of marriage seems to have remained the same throughout the years.

Type of Marriages

As said above, part of the reason why it is hard to have a unified definition of what marriage is because of the different variations that have occurred and continue to occur in different cultures and societies. Jackson (2015) notes that before the marriage takes place the selection of one’s mate has to take place, and that happens in different forms. There is endogamy which is selecting one’s mate from within one’s social group usually within one’s ethnic group (Jackson 2015). There is exogamy which is selecting a mate outside one’s social group or ethnic group. There is hypergamy which is a marriage that takes place between a man of a higher class and a low-class woman. There is hypogamy which is a marriage that takes place between a high-class woman and low-class man. The last form of mate selection is Homogamy which is mate selection on the basis of similar characteristics such as education level, religious affiliation, and race (Jackson 2015). At first glance, homogamy looks like endogamy. The difference lies in endogamy happening within a social group usually an ethnic group while homogamy may encompass selecting a mate from one’s ethnic group, but it may involve other characteristics such as education. That key difference means that an endogamist may select a mate from within their ethnic group while the homogamist may select a mate from within their ethnic group and other groups as well as long as the individual fits their given characteristics.

There are many types of marriages. As such, only the most common as detailed by anthropological texts will be detailed. The most common type of marriage is monogamy. Jackson (2015) notes that the basic definition of monogamy would have been that it is a marriage between one woman and one man. However, given the changing times, the concept of monogamy has expounded to include a union between one man and another man or a union between one woman and another woman (Cooney 2018). The basic premise of monogamy is that an individual can only have one given spouse at any given time. Should one have the desire to marry another spouse, then they will have to divorce the first spouse, or they can do so if the other spouse is dead. Under those two circumstances, an individual may marry another spouse. The other type of marriage that is not common in the West but has been recorded in Africa is polygamy. Polygamy is a situation where an individual has more than one spouse (Jackson 2015). There are two types of polygamy, and that is polygyny and polyandry. Anderson (2000) notes that polygyny is a type of marriage in which a man has more than one wife. This is the most common form of polygamy, and it is usually seen in African communities (Jackson 2015). The other type of polygamy is polyandry, and it involves a woman having more than one husband (Starkweather 2010). The practice of polyandry was common in areas of India and Tibet and some communities in Africa (Jackson 2015).

The other types of marriages listed below are not common, but they have existed or exist in some parts of the world. There are group marriages which as the name implies is a marriage between a group of men and a group of women (Bisin and Verdier 2000). In the group, no single individual is considered to be the mate of a particular individual, they are all married to each other, and they all have the same kind of obligations (Ingiabuna 2012). There is levirate marriage in which a man marries his late brother’s widow, and he must support her as if she was his wife from the beginning (Jackson 2015). Jackson (2015) also notes that a key reason for the existence of levirate marriages is that it occurs to perpetuate the line of the deceased brother more so if he died without having procreated. Children born of the levirate marriage will be considered to be children of the late brother. There is also widow inheritance which defers from the levirate marriage in the sense that the widow decides which one of her kin she is willing to live with as her husband (Charles 2008). While there are many types of marriages, the ones listed above are the ones that have been noted in a number of anthropological texts.

Modern Marriage

At the turn of the 19th Century, arranged marriages had reduced in number, and people started getting married for the sake of love. However, women still did not wear white dresses during the ceremony. In 1840 Queen Victoria was getting married, and she wanted a dress with a lot of lace, and she was advised that the best color to show of the lace was white (Lambert 2018). A photo was taken of her in the white dress, and since then, white dresses have been part of the wedding and marriage scene. Wearing a white dress may not be part of marriage, but it is part of the ceremony that leads to marriage; therefore it is important to note its significance.

Some anthropologists argue that marriage may not be universal and others argue that marriage may be universal. Regardless of what one believes, they tend to agree that some form of marriage exists. While they agree that some forms of marriage exist in different cultures coming up with a unified definition of the concept of marriage is a great challenge. According to Okodudu (2010), the reason that a unified definition of marriage exists is due to the fact that there are many variations of marriage arrangements that have been witnessed in different societies. The different variations of marriage have not kept anthropologists from trying to come up with definitions of marriage. Farley (1994) defined marriage as a socially approved arrangement, usually between a male and a female that involves an economic and sexual relationship. Beattie (1980) defines marriage as a union between a man and a woman such that the children to the woman are recognized as legitimate offspring to both partners. Smith and Preston (1982) note that marriage is an enduring social approved sexual and economic relationship between at least two persons. Ingiabuna et al. (2003) defined marriage as the socially approved union of a cohabiting sexual pair called husband and wife through which offspring derive their legitimacy.

Based on the stated definitions of marriage, one can deduce that marriage is a union between a man and a woman so that the children are recognized as legitimate offspring of both of them. However, that definition may not fit modern times given the ever-changing nature of sexuality. Okududu (2010) notes that the definition of marriage has changed over the years more so in Western society. In much of Western society, marriage is conceptualized as a union between two consenting adults irrespective of the genders/sexes with or without approval from their parents or family (Jackson 2015). Same-sex marriages are redefining the concept of marriage in modern times. Some people get into same-sex marriages even though they know that it will be biologically impossible for them to get children. However, their union is recognized as a marriage given the fact it has taken place between two consenting adults recognized by law. Moreover, the issue of getting children is no longer an issue given the fact that there are systems in place that allow the individuals to adopt children. Therefore, an updated definition of marriage is one where two consenting adults of either gender join together in marriage.

The difference in Western Marriage and Marriages in Nonindustrial Societies

Marriage differs in Western societies as compared to nonindustrial societies. In Western societies, marriage is more of a personal affair. Marriage in the West hinges on the idea that the couple is leaving their old family behind and they are now creating a new family (Dartmouth 2019). However, in nonindustrial societies and nations, chiefly in Africa, marriage is a means to convert strangers into family. Dartmouth (2019) notes that in such societies, marriage is not merely the joining of two individuals, but it is the joining of two families. As such it is very common for an individual to be asked about the type of family that they come from and various other questions that revolve around one’s family. That is because marriage is seen as a means to create and maintain political alliances, relationship affinity and making new friends that now become family (Dartmouth 2019). Therefore, in nonindustrial societies marriage is more exogamic than it is endogamic (Dartmouth 2019). The societies are more likely to accept people outside their ethnicities as compared to white Western society.

Bride Wealth and Bride Service

In relation to marriage, there are key concepts that have been defined by anthropologists, and that is bridewealth and bride service. While those two concepts have mostly been abandoned in the West, they are alive and well in a number of African and nonindustrial societies. Ogbu (1978) notes that bridewealth, commonly referred to as dowry in some African communities is the resources paid to the bride’s family for the hand of their daughter. While one might argue that the whole concept commodifies women, that would be viewing the concept through the lens of modern ideas rather than exploring it in its proper context. The bridewealth was seen as a means through which the bride’s family was compensated for the “loss” of their daughter (Ogbu 1978). As the concept implies, it was usually the man who gave the bride wealth though in some Indian communities it is the girl’s family that gives the wealth. The bridewealth also served an important purpose since it ensured that the children who were born to the woman became members of the husband’s descent group (Dartmouth 2019). Additionally, in African society giving bridewealth meant that the woman was now under the protection of the husband and to symbolize it, she took up his surname (Ogbu 1978). The concept of bride service also revolves around the notion of compensating the bride’s family. Dartmouth (2019) notes that among the San community in the southern part of Africa, a new couple will live near the bride’s family and the man will hunt for the bride’s family during the first year. This is a means of compensating the brides family while at the same time it is a way of tying a couple into the overall network of the individuals whom they are now responsible. Both concepts, bridewealth and bride service, are seen as a means of compensating the bride’s family for the loss of their daughter, while at the same time joining the two families together.

Kinship

Kinship is a key organizing principle of human society, and it has its roots in family and marriage. Kinship has been known to establish strong bonds between individuals on the basis of biological relationships between parents and their children, siblings and between marriage partners. Radcliffe-Brown (1952) noted that kinship is a social construct that defines the relationship between an individual(ego), their parents and their siblings. Onwujeogwu (1995) notes that kinship is a relationship that is established on the foundation of parent and child attachment. In a general sense, a kinship gives one access to resources, duties, authority, power, some form of social security, property rights and obligations that must be met as long as one shares kinship and is part of the group (Jackson 2015). The most common basis of kinship is blood ties, and it usually happens between parents and their children and between siblings. However, people can become kin through marriage. Jackson (2015) notes that marriage is not only the joining of two people but the joining of two families as well. In a sense, the two families become kin as a result of the marriage of the two people. Both individuals will become part of the other’s family which means that they will have gained kin through marriage. Therefore, a compelling argument in favor of marriage is that an individual will gain kin on the basis of marriage.

Descent System

As stated above, part of the reason why bridewealth is given to the bride’s family is so that the children born of the woman may be part of the husband’s descent group. As such it is important to understand the concept of a decent system from an anthropological view. Hicks and Gwyne (1994) note that a decent system/group comprises of all the people who can trace their connection to a common ancestor. Charles (2008), notes that a decent system/group bolsters the kinship system in that it traces back connections to a single ancestor through a series of parent-child links. The descent group to which an individual belongs to is determined at birth, and it is life-long (Ingiabuna 2012). In a sense, it is ascribed status because one is born into a decent group rather than choosing to be part of the descent group. There are a number of different descent systems. Matrilineal Descent Systems are descent systems which people trace their ancestry through their mother’s lineage (Kottak 2004). Patrilineal Descent Systems in which people trace their ancestry through their father’s lineage (Kottak 2004). There is the double decent in which ego can trace their ancestry through both their mother’s and their father’s lineage as defined by set cultural rules (Ingiabuna 2012). The last type of descent systems is that of Bilateral Decent in which the ego inherits property from any kinsman, whether mother or father, as long as they are recognized by the said kinsmen (Ingiabun 2012). Descent systems are very important since one can trace their lineage back through their mother’s or their father’s decent depending on the cultural norms.

Why Marry?

Now that all the major factors that tend to be determined, be a factor of, or an effect of marriage, why should an individual seek to marry as guided by anthropological literature? First, marriage is seen as a basis of the basic societal unit, the family. The family is the social context from which many individual derive their identity in one way or another. Mair (1972) observes that a family is a domestic group in which parents and children live together. In its most basic form, the family consists of a couple and their children. In the context of this paper, marriage will be the foundation upon which the couple will build their association. A family will be a derivative of the marriage since it will give the couple the opportunity to have and raise up children within a nuclear family. That’s not to mean that marriage is the only foundation of a nuclear family, but in the context of this paper, it is a compelling reason why one should marry. Second, marriage leads to kinship and descent systems. As said above, for some societies, marriage does not simply revolve around two individuals, but it is the joining of two families too. People will become related to each other’s family and they will become kin. There are several advantages and significance of individuals becoming part of a family or a kinship. Individuals will have a bigger support group that they can too in times of need. Kinship will enjoy certain social obligations such as moral support and material dependence since there is a high level of trust amongst kinsmen. Kinship will regulate sexual relations in that one cannot have sexual intercourse with their kinsmen since they are practically family members. Kinship will lead to descent groups being created in which children will be able to derive the lineage. Lastly, kinship will determine who is eligible for an inheritance. Therefore, there are several anthropological reasons why marriage should be considered.

Conclusion

The concept of marriage is hard to define within anthropological circles. It seems to be a personal affair, but it has ripple effects into many areas of a society of culture. The concept of marriage has changed and involved from arranged marriages to the point where people marry for love; to the point where marriage is not only between one man and one woman but it can be between a man and a man or a woman and a woman. While it is hard to define the concept of marriage, its effects can be clearly seen. It is the foundation upon which nuclear families and by extension extended families are built upon. Marriage also leads to kinship and descent systems being established, and there are several advantages and significance of being part of a kinship and descent systems. Marriage is not simply a personal affair nor is it simply an institution for meeting the sexual need. Marriage forms the foundation of society’s basic social group, the family and lends legitimacy for the fulfillment of sexual needs. While anthropologists may not agree upon the definition of marriage, they do agree that its advantages and its significance to society cannot be ignored.

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