Exploring the Intersection of Biology and Psychology

Introduction

Bio-psychology, also referred to as behavioural neuroscience is a study of relationship between mind and brain by examining ways in which the biological physical aspects of human structure that include chemical balance and neurotransmitters influence mental processes such as behaviour, feeling, thoughts. As described by Larsen & Buss (2009) and Widiger & Costa Jr. (2013), personality embodies characteristics setting emotional, cognitive, and behavioural patterns emanating from environmental and biological factors. Over the years, philosophers and psychologist have argued on the link between one’s behavioural and cognitive patterns and physical structure but recently, neuroscientists have increasingly demonstrated one biological being and psychological functioning especially towards such disorders as bi-polar, BDP, and adult ADHD and depression.

Prevalence of ADHD, Depression, and BPD

Basing on the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R), National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) estimates the prevalence of adult aged between 18 and 44 years diagnosed with Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) to be 4.4% in the US. The findings further shows prevalence in male is higher compared to female with 5.4% and 3.2% respectively. Prevalence of the disorder taken from a Europe, America, Asia, and Middle East indicate an overall of 2.8%. Studies from NCS-R show prevalence of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is 1.6% in the US and those diagnosed with the personality disorder being 9.1%. In Australia, studies indicate prevalence to be 2-5% and 0.7% in Norway (Lieb et al., 2004; John et al., 2009). Studies conducted in the UK, US, and Norway shows little or no disparities in prevalence among based on sex.

Aetiology BPD and ADHD

Although the causes of the disorder in not quite understood, researchers have pointed to genetics, environmental, and neurophysiological and neurobiological dysfunctions factors. Diagnosis of patients with BPD tends to exhibits behaviours such as subtle antisocial, impulsiveness, self-harm, and unstable emotionality. Similarly, studies have acknowledged genetics, environmental, and neurobiological components as the cause of ADHD. According to Tripp and Wickens (2009), evidence associates ADHD with neurotransmitters and structural functioning of the brain in both children and adults. Cortese (2012) and Rommelse et al. (2010) estimated heritability of ADHD to be 76% while environmental setting is found to increase the likelihood of the symptoms.

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

Developed by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalytic theory based on a belief that human behaviour is subject to psychological functioning one unconscious mind. According to Waddell (2018) and Guntrip (2018), it fosters the idea that human beings have a collection of unconscious urges and thoughts, some ‘positive’ and other ‘unpleasant’ depending on the social setting, which are fundamental to ones cognitions and behaviour. Freud theorised that the three proposed part of human mind: ego, superego, and id guide person’s psychological processes that include thoughts, behaviour, and conscious (Fairbairn, 2013; Guntrip, 2018). He categorised the id as a part of unconscious mind present at birth and largely responsible to person’s instincts, as well as development of ego. On the other hand, the superego is a product of the one’s perception of rightness and wrongness and central to people’s judgements. The theory holds that deterministic approach on human behaviour and personality in which it is impossible to either prove or disprove it. In addition to basing its agreement on the notion of invisible influence on person’s character, failure to account for one’s free will has been subject to criticism (Fine, 2013; Thompson, 2018). Recently, application of the psychoanalysis to therapeutic procedures has gained traction owing to its approach into unconscious mental processes ranging from malformation of character, depressive states, abnormalities, and obsessional. Fundamentally, as pointed out by Katz (2013) and Fayek (2014) the application of the psychoanalytic theory is rooted on replacing the unconscious mental processes with conscious elements through overcoming internal mind’s resistances housed by pleasure-pain principle, mental topography, and depth-psychology.

Trait theory perspective

Also referred to as dispositional theory, trait theory poises human habitual patterns such as emotions, line of thinking, and behaviour to measure person’s personality. Gordon Allport and Henry Odbert undertook early research personality traits that later manifested in sixteen personality factor questionnaire (16PF) and the ‘Big Five’ factors capturing behavioural aspects and attitudes (Diener, and Lucas, 2017; Cattell, and Mead, 2008). Its holds that one’s pattern defines personality that is consistent over time and situations and differs from one person to another. It is worth noting that, according to the theory, one should disassociate up bring and culture from traits but focus on individual rather than the situation in which they are in. Eysenck developed the extraversion-introversion and neuroticism-emotional stability a two-axis measure of personality that was later expanded to include psychoticism to form PEN model (McRorie et al., 2009). He firmly believed that these three personality traits were subject to biological factors rooted deep into person’s hereditary genes. Controversially, he argued cortical arousal in the Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS) caused extraversion and that extraverts are aroused by external factors in which they crave leading to being more outgaining whereas the introverts tend to avoid such stimuli.

Biopsychological theory of personality

Originality proposed by Eysenck, Alan Grey developed the Biopsychological model in 1970. He held a belief that person’s personality is influenced by behavioural activation system (BAS) and behavioural inhibition system (BIS) (Pinel, 2009; Li et al., 2015). The BIS holds that behaviour is a factor of seeking pleasurable and rewarding activities. For example, indulging into unhealthy eating behaviour or smoking is rewarding in short term but associable to serious health problems such obesity and lungs problems in long terms. In a study conducted by Beck et al. (2009) on BAS sensitivity and reactivity to alcohol cues, the findings showed significant association between urge and affect reactivity to exposure of alcoholic drinkers to favourite drinks. Conversely, the BIS view in avoiding punishment perspective where a person behaviour in a matter that minimise risk of retribution and high level of sensitivity to these cues leads to natural avoidance programmed to prevent such elements as sadness, frustration, and anxiety.

Personality and mental process

Based on Freud perspective as driving forces of personality, cathexis tends to dispose a person to create a mental image towards something is craving or needs such forming a mental image of delicious food when hunger. Whereas, anticathexis involves blocking social needs through repression of desires and urges (Kline, 2013). According to Freud, a person has only ‘so much libidinal energy available’ such when a lot of energy is directed to suppress desires it limits resources and energy for other activities.

Biologically, core elements of the neurotransmitters are linking different parts of a body in order to undertake its function of transmitting information. Therefore, linking neuron to neuron chemically results in affecting different parts of the body differently. For instance, the dopamine is a neurotransmitter responsible for learning and movement. As pointed by DeYoung (2010), people are born with varying levels and types hence differing learning and movement abilities from one person to another. Studies have associated little amount of neurotransmitter dopamine to Parkinson disease while excessive amount linked to psychological condition such as schizophrenia or becoming psychotic. According to Smillie and Wacker (2014), there is a fine line between the amount of dopamine produced determining happiness and being delusional.

Moreover, findings have found imbalances of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, opiate, GABA, glutamate, and acetylcholine can result in serious mental problems that include compulsiveness, alcoholism, depression, and anxiety disorder. A study involving voles to determine the role of neural receptors in personality showed ‘family-values’ of caring of the young ones together a change from disposed nature of going to separate ways after mating (Churchland, 2018; Pennisi, 2005). The observation were made after male prairie voles ware injected with oxytocin receptors that are associate with close social contacts in mammals. This findings has led researchers to project that lowering or increasing its supply in the human brain would have a significant effects on personality either associating or disassociating with others in a the society.

Similarly, personality theorists have revealed that different parts of the brain exhibit different personalities. Researching on the correlation between personality and depression, Klein et al. (2012) argued that depression is associable to negative extraversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness traits. Like other mental problems such as depression, criticism have been launched to the idea that Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associable to one biological and social setting not just psychological process. According to Philipsen (2006) and Sandberg (2005), people diagnosed with the ADHD are less controlled and reflective but rather impulsive compared to other people in a given setting. The characteristics such as inattentiveness, impatience, hyperactive, restlessness, and easily distractible have been linked to impulsiveness. Neuroscientists and psychologists have increasingly employed the term executive control in reference to mechanisms in which brains show impulsive characteristics and behaviour (Silva et al., 2013). Such inhibited behaviour as failing to reflect and assess the risk involved in one’s actions but rather just reacting are not characteristics of a controlled person.

Conclusion

Early theories emphasised that personality largely depended on temperaments traits (phlegmatic, melancholic, sanguine, choleric) but most modern theories set forth to shade light into core and founding elements of personality argue in line of interaction between motivation and psychological with one’s immediate environment. In his humourism theory, Hippocrates believed that excesses or deficiencies of the four humour (blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm) in the body led to variations in temperament. Currently, studies disputes the concept but have acknowledged the recognition of influence the biological factors have on behaviour and personality. The focus has been more on biological aspect in relation to the working of a brain underpinning into one’s behaviour. The findings on neurons, neurotransmitters, localization of brain functions, and evolution of human have led to deeper understanding of ways in which biological processes influences mental processes or psychological functioning such as emotions, thoughts, and behaviour.

Personality-driving forces have been demonstrated to emanate from both biological and psychological aspects irrespective of gender. Theories have linked such conditions such as ADHD, depression, BPD, compulsiveness, and alcoholism to biological characteristics and recently arguments have emerged pointing to mental processes such as behaviour and cognition associated to neurotransmitters receptors. Nevertheless, psychologists view that determinants of personality or attitude traits are rooted on both biological and psychological aspects of a person as well as social setting but challenge is the level causing elements and ability to control them.

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