Diverse Notions of Beauty: Western vs African Perspectives

Introduction

In this literature review chapter, the focus is to analyse critically the concept linked to beauty and beautification that include the historical, cultural, sociological, and philosophical background. In basis to capture an in depth perspective of the notion and ideals of beauty and respective constructions, this study aimed to understand the thoughts behind ‘standardization’ and ‘qualify’ beauty and elements considered beautiful as perceived by different cultures particularly the Western and African. In the subsequent subchapters, it sets to establish the perception and construction beauty in contemporary society under the influence of different cultures and lastly, the notion of beauty and beautification in Nigeria while taking a look into traditional and current qualities and standards.

Concept of beauty and beautification

As argued by Wolf (1991), beauty ascribes to characteristics held by a person, object, animal, or idea modelled to provide a perceptual satisfaction or pleasurable experience. Studies have placed the concept or idea of beauty as sociological, philosophical, cultural, aesthetics, or social perspectives meaning its definition and ideals varies from societies and individuals in that matter (Kneller, 1986; Gottschall, 2008). According to Dutton (2009) and Jacobsen (2010), it varies from cultures, societies, perceptions of the world as well as individual surrounding and not limited to time. Some scholars have argued in the view that beauty is modelled in manner to inspire and represent peoples’ distinct and attractiveness, real and free, feel alive, and eminent and proud of ones’ physical and psychological characteristics.

Nevertheless, due to varied perspective of the concept of beauty, it is often misunderstood and shadowed by either objective or subjective view and arguments with some philosophy holding that its lies ‘in the eye of beholder’. Traditionally, beauty has been perceived to derive from things themselves rather existing in the minds of individuals but often differs from person to person. Hume (1894) contented that one person may perceive deformity as beauty while another sensible of it, and further pointing out that individuals ‘ought to acquiesce in his own sentiment’ while not infringing in the views of the others. However, philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Hume, and Kant held different perspective on the nature and whether beauty should be treated subjectively or objectively (Stanford Encyclopaedia, 2016). Historically, in many societies, beauty was associated with as pleasure and satisfaction although measured as origin not effect of it (Ibid). Largely, beauty is proverbially subjective in such the people can severely dispute about taste where some individuals are perceivable as beautiful or possess paradigm of good taste or lack of it in that matter.

Similarly, to such variables as taste, beauty has received a good share of criticism and controversy due its subjective nature and lacking consensus standard in which a things or a person must hold in order to be described as beautiful. As pointed by Kant (1790, p. 34), the applicable principles to individual’s taste under conditions of which concept of object/person is subsume is valid and thus infer beautiful nature of the same through a syllogism thoughts. However, he contended that this is impossible.

Essentially, beauty calls for adoration, love, use, and usefulness of the said object, idea, or person but it is pertinent to understand that description varies widely. Based on classical conception, beauty, which is a primordial western perception of beauty, underscores combination of core elements in a coherent form that forms a harmonised and symmetrical order particularly in its physical appearance (Tatarkiewicz, 1972; Peters, 2014). Whereas, the idealistic view of beauty conceives the idea of perfection (perfect unity) of different parts such skin colour, hair size/colour, body weight, breast size, and height forming a complete element, which constitute universally symmetrical patterned (Stanford Encyclopaedia, 2016). Other philosophers such as Burke (1957, p. 83) have perceived beauty quality(ies) in a body that causes a another person to fall in love or being passionate with it. Nehamas (2007, p. 77) argued that beauty embodies what a person lacks marking an art speaking out ones’ desires.

Beauty and beautification in contemporary societies

Although the contemporary societies has been significantly influenced by globalisation, movement, and advanced sharing of information, the standards of beauty in different cultures is apparent. According to Cohen et al. (2013), most Westerners consider slim, tall, and ‘blonde’ as qualities of beautiful women. Whereas, in some Africa and South America cultures, stretched lip and ear defines beauty in a woman. In studies conducted by Yan & Bissell (2014) and Cohen et al. (2013), it found that qualities of beauty variety widely with culture where societies such as in Mauritania consider heavier women as desirable but this is could receive public ridicule rather than adoration in the western cultures. Moreover, in Indian culture where beauty is considered an expression of godliness and something to be admired, nose rings, henna, and rings as well as lighter skin are considered fundamental in advancing adoration (Li et al., 2008). Some cultures especially in Africa and South America have body Scarification as a popular tradition to intrigue sense of beauty and sensuality as well as social status (adulthood).

In the study of perception of preserving beauty, Clarke and Griffin (2007) found that use of interventions work that include anti-wrinkle creams, cosmetic surgeries, non-surgical cosmetic procedures, cosmetics, and hair beauties to attain desired beauty as commendable. Although some have argued in the prospect of acceptance of individual physical features as qualities of beauty as well as realities of growing older, some hold contrary views arguing that both aging and beauty should be intervened by individuals aimed at attained personal satisfaction, adoration, love, and sense of belonging. Adelman and Ruggi (2008) alludes that the issues of bodily image and practices have increasingly taken as representation of beauty and core element in construction of identity.

Currently, many societies that traditionally had a defined symbol and qualities of beauty are increasingly attempting to transform or crop social context of beauty through construction of ‘perfect’ bodies and qualities needed to identify as beautiful. Over the past century, the notion of beauty and beautification, in that matter, to achieve perfection has risen drastically in the wake of ‘beautiful’ celebrities and photoshopped images ‘expected’ qualities of beautiful women. In her book Wolf (2015), exemplified the pressure emanating from social expectation of prominent and power women in regards to physical beauty. As pointed by Millard (2009), this has given rise to unrealistic standards for women to attain exquisite body image. Study conducted on psychological effects of body image, have found that correlation between poor body images and one self-confidence, attitudes, and assertiveness irrespective of the cultural, socioeconomic, and ethnic backgrounds. According to Edmonds (2011), in a society perceiving slim and lighter body image as symbol of adoration and beauty, women with bigger body weight are affected psychologically leading to seek construction through cosmetics and plastic surgery for perfection and modification in conformity with the established ‘standards’ in socio-cultural and non-personal contexts.

Beauty in Nigeria

Like most other African cultures, Nigeria adores heavier (fatter) women as qualities of beauty. According to Simmons (1998), most Nigerian teenagers spent considerable amount of their time in ‘fattening room’ eating bowl of starchy food while staying mostly inactive in order to attain traditional qualities of beauty. As pointed by the study, the driving factors of these fattening practises are gaining social context and approval of beauty among young women under the notion of ‘bigger the better’. In another study conducted by Abah et al. (2017) on the eyelash extension use, the findings indicated an increase in its use in the past decade.

Key contributing factor to this increase is attributed to penetration of social media, heighten peer pressure, and globalised information from western countries. de Santana Pinho (2010) held that women in Africa have looked more to the western cultures for qualities and factors perceived as core in definition of beauty despite apparent lack of universal form of beauty. Davidson (2010) asserted that African have derived their perception of beauty from the nature and ways to relate to it in most natural ways that includes body images, scarification, and extension of body parts. Similar to other African cultures, Nigerian cultures have traditionally looked into nature and surrounding to derive body modification whether body weight (heaver women considered healthy, fertile, physically attractive, and higher social status) or extension and scarification. According to Oloruntoba-Oju (2007), ethnic groups such Yoruba, dominant in South-western Nigeria, emphasised on such body parts as buttocks, breasts, teeth, and eyeballs as qualities of adoration for beauty.

Furthermore, facial attractiveness is core determinant in most cultures in the country with such features as roundness and plumpness is considered pervasive body image of beauty. Assessing the idealisation of femininity and nationalism in Nigerian beauty pageant, Balogun (2012) highlighted that setting two parallel pageant (Queen Nigeria and The Most Beautiful Girl in Nigeria) indicate clash of cultural perspective of beauty ideals by Nigerian and international cultures. Although in both settings, the focus has been moved away from traditional ideals of beauty (heavy body image) while ‘international standards’ is characterised by modification to conform to appearance ideals. Balogun (2012) acknowledged the increasing shift in Nigerian consideration of beautiful to accommodate the media and set qualities perceived to quantify beauty. Recently, the move has been from bigger and rounder butts to thinner, taller, and lighter-skinned under the ‘western ideals’. Garner et al. (1980) alludes that the western cultures expect women to have a thin body image pressuring through such standards as thinness, lighter-skin, and tall as measure of beauty.

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