Fighting Corruption in Sub-Saharan Africa

Chapter 1

Introduction

From time immemorial, corruption has been a common practice within countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Majorly, the practice is perpetrated with governments, whereby those in authority and responsible for handling national resources misuse them for their personal gains. According to Acemoglu et al. (2004), the misuse is usually manifested and justified by the establishment of policies aimed at favouring personal interests as opposed to the interests of their own nations. Characterized by greed and theft, corruption affects human socioeconomic welfare in most SSA countries. The problem of corruption in SSA can be traced back in history. For instance, a report by Transparency International, a leading global watchdog on corruption claimed ten countries were considered most corrupt in the world; six of them are in Sub-Saharan Africa (Woo & Choi, 2018). Also, in 2002, another study from the African Union estimated that corruption costs the continent more than $150 billion a year (Arnone & Borlini, 2014). While the fight against corruption in SSA countries requires more concerted efforts, the fight against corruption in SSA by anti-corruption institutions has shown mixed results in recent years, and experts fear that main international partners are not ready may not stop providing aid to these countries regardless of the rampant corruption. To achieve human socioeconomic development, governments need to be accountable and closely monitored. Furthermore, Besley & Prat (2006) argue that countries can only maximize their financial and socioeconomic potential when they put in place and implement viable and transparent economic measures. The main aim of this study is to gather empirical evidence on the effects of corruption in SS’A socioeconomic development.

Background of the Study

The problem of corruption and misuse of power by government officials is a problem throughout the world, with African not an exception. In fact, Kaufmann et al (2008) mentions Congo, Nigeria, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zimbabwe as some of the African countries that have experience rampant corruption, through corrupt leaders. The problem of corruption is especially evident in the way despite the fact that most of those countries are well endowed with natural resources; a majority of their populations are languishing in poverty. Furthermore, most of these countries have been victims of various endemics such as HIV AIDS and Ebola. Historically, developed and developing countries with governments accused of corruption have experienced various levels of revolutions, targeting at unseating the authorities based on the corruption allegations. In this regard, Klein (2005) believes that corruption, an act previously only mentioned with caution, has in the recent past acquired a significant ability to disrupt government operations and subsequently affect economic growth. Recent studies by other international organizations such as the World Bank (Kolk et al., 2010) have shown the negative impact of corruption on economic growth by affecting business competitiveness and impeding the establishment of civil societies. Therefore, there is considerable evidence that corruption bears high costs to nation, and these costs may be more unbearable to SSA’s developing countries. Besides, Lindgreen et al. (2009) speculated that it affects the political stability of countries experiencing it, apart from affecting the social wellbeing by limiting the accessibility of social services. Similar remarks were made by Mody & Murshid (2005), who asserted that corruption thwarts political stability and affects the political legitimacy of governments. On the other hand, Muthuri et al. (2011) observed that even when corruption is practiced less pervasive manner, it may contribute to poor resource distribution, and resource wastage, decreased political competition and increased distrust in the government. Despite the identified negative effects of corruption, some scholars have proposed the positive effects of corruption, especially in developing countries. For instance, Muthuri et al. (2011) observe that corruption may be used to entice foreign investors to invest in developing countries when corrupt politicians give them special consideration especially in cases where commercial law does not clearly state the guidelines for awarding such tenders. However, studies by Lindgreen et al. (2009) argue that the negative effects of such corrupt activities quickly emerge to offset the positive effects and that the benefits only last in the short-term.

The rampant of institutionalization of corruption across the globe has made corruption become a subject of high interest to international development and policymaking. Furthermore, the issue of corruption has become a center of attraction to many academicians who have carried out a variety of studies on corruption and its effects on humanity. Furthermore, there has been an expanding body of research work examining corruption all over the world. In SSA, the issues of corruption and its impact on society are both real and perceived. In fact, most Sub Saharan countries have featured in the lower parts of global corruption indices, indicating that it is a major problem facing these countries.

Statement of the Problem

Observations by Besley & Prat (2006) indicate that to make gains from corruption, government officials engage in schemes and enact policies that thwart economic development to benefit their personal interest. Ideally, they go against all rules of accountability while indulging in various forms of manipulation (Mody & Murshid, 2005). While discussing the topic of corruption in governments, Kaufmann et al. (2008) reveal that corrupt government officials appoint their relatives and close allies in senior positions for easier self-preservation – and act also termed as nepotism. Yet, nepotism hinders meritocracy. According to Besley & Prat (2006), meritocracy is the practice of rewarding individuals for their own deserving accomplishments, and not for any political connections or family relations. Therefore, failure to uphold meritocracy contributes to a breakdown of integrity within the government structures. Besides, Lindgreen et al. (2009) observe that when meritocracy fails in a nation, another element of nepotism, kakistocracy, emerges. Kakistocracy is the emergence of a strategic network of corrupt individuals in the government who coordinate to protect themselves. Academia has had a significant interest in the topic of corruption for a while now. Furthermore, corruption has been a topic of conversation among people of different professions, politicians, government officials, citizens, the business community, and non-governmental organizations. According to Besley & Prat (2006), corruption results from a variety of deficiencies in the political, economic, cultural, and administrative structures of society. It affects the economic wellbeing of societies and diverts investments from social services and infrastructure. Against this background, the main aim of the proposed study is to investigate the socioeconomic causes and impacts of corruption in SSA. Therefore, the study will evaluate the impacts of corruption of various aspects of the people’s socioeconomic welfare, such as income inequality and employment, as well as how such aspects may contribute to corruption.

Research objectives

To investigate the impact of corruption on the socio-economic wellbeing of populations in Sub-Saharan Africa

To identify factors contributing to corruption in the Sub Saharan Africa

To identify strategies for addressing the problem of corruption in the Sub Saharan Africa

Research Questions

What are the impacts of corruption on the socio-economic wellbeing of populations in Sub-Saharan Africa?

What are the factors contributing to corruption in Sub Saharan Africa?

What are the strategies for addressing the problem of corruption in Sub Saharan Africa?

Justification of the Study

The proposed study will seek empirical evidence for the impacts of corruption on the socio-economic welfare of populations within the SSA. Upon completion, the study will contribute to already existing literature on corruption and its socioeconomic impacts. Besides, the study findings will inform policy development initiatives, by providing evidence on the strategies addressing the issue of corruption. Furthermore the proposed study will for a foundation of the development of future studies within this topic area.

Chapter 2

Literature review

Corruption in Africa is a matter of global concern as most of the Africans lead deplorable lives, which makes it hard to ignore. Most of the sources are academic articles written by scholars both in Africa and other parts of the world. These scholarly articles are part of the research and experimental studies throughout the continent. Besides, there are organizational reports from world organizations, including the United Nations and World Bank and IMF on the actual situations, not only in Africa but also in comparison with other continents worldwide. Also, media reports and articles on the circumstances and debates across Africa are included as the main references of the situations at the grassroots. Finally, there are books on different issues of global concern, including ethics, philosophy, development, corruption, and other issues related to socioeconomic and urban development. Therefore, the sources are aimed at providing comprehensive information to understand the situation in sub-Saharan Africa corruption clearly. The article recognizes that urban development faces many issues as it is a multi-sectorial aspect of society. Politics and poor governance control these sectors. There are different pillars in ensuring adequate housing and infrastructure, particularly in urban centres. The source is essential in the proposal as it explains what is involved in urban development in African countries and why such events do not yield much. On the other hand, the article recommends different strategies for handling housing issues on the continent (Bah, et, al., 2018 pp.23-55). Moreover, the article demonstrates the state of Africa as far as urbanization and migration are concerned. The report shows the number of people living in urban areas and the rate of rural-urban movement. It also demonstrates the areas with the highest migrations. With other references, the source is useful in weighing between the rate of urbanization, the standards of living, and the nature of infrastructure the government has set up (Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana 2018 pp1-22). In addition, Dewey, J., (2016) the book is a general reference in describing what is morally right or wrong as far as society is concerned. The book will be useful in giving a general overview and reference on how to instil ethics and good practices among leaders and the people in general.

The article is the actual reflection of the levels of corruption in Africa. The article presents the continent as the most corrupt in the world and where those who propagate it are leaders in positions powerful enough to immunize them from prosecution. The article also portrays the resistance or hesitation of strong economies, including the united states from acting and forcing these countries to act accordingly. Hanson gives examples of countries like Kenya with a vast amount of resources but does not translate to better lives for their people (Hanson, S., 2009). The journal illustrates the relationship between corruption and debt in sub-Saharan Africa. It is evident that with an increase in fraud, the slower the development and therefore to finance the development projects, the countries have to turn to creditors for support. The article is essential as debt is an indication of the standards of living and the level of dependence in these countries. The article also enables us to examine how interdependent and self-sufficient are countries in sub-Saharan Africa as a result of corruption (Henri, N., 2018 pp.14-17). Also, the article demonstrates the type of corruption in Africa and other countries and its contribution to poverty levels in the continent. Lewis discusses grand, political, and petty forms of corruption that continue to subject people with hardships resulting in high poverty levels. The source helps in giving a general view of what happens when a crime is involved in a particular society. Most of the corruption occurs in the government departments and offices, thus affecting the highest number of people. As people seek development in various aspects of their lives, both the law enforcers and lawmakers are in collaboration in propagating the vice (Joseph, et, al., 2016 pp.562-578). Mohamed et al., (2015) demonstrate the importation and propagation of corruption and other vices by other countries through foreign aid. Sub-Saharan Africa receives a lot of donations and financial grants from different countries and in the process. The paper hypothesizes that the corruption in these countries has been increasing substantially in the recent past, and so does the corruption levels. The article is essential in the project in determining the relationship between foreign aid and the levels of corruption in the country and therefore, the socioeconomic and urban development.

The World Bank report illustrates the state of the world urban population. The report shows the number of people moving from rural to urban centres and the real picture in the sub-Saharan Africa urban centres and their difference with other populations around the world. Besides, the report is a good and reliable basis of comparing cities and countries with the highest forms of corruption and its relationship with their development and the socioeconomic status of their inhabitants (The World Bank Group, 2019). The article examines different arguments on the relationship between urbanization and development, mainly in Africa. Urbanization is related directly to the socioeconomic growth of the society, and therefore, both issues must be addressed by authorities as they are both undermined by corruption in different levels. The source is essential as it demonstrates ways in which a country can develop in all fronts by fixing their governance and minimization of corruption something that most African countries have failed to do and thus left behind in their development efforts (Turok, et, al., 2013). The report is a reflection of the changes in terms of development by which the African continent and more so sub-Saharan Africa is undergoing. The development is on all fronts, especially economically, socially, and politically. The report also outlines the problems and setbacks that are facing the sub-Saharan African countries in their quest for development, and corruption is one of them. The source is vital in illustrating the extent of growth in sub-Saharan Africa (UNDP, 2019) The article by Williams et al. demonstrates the nature of cities and levels of corruption. It also includes the role of different stakeholders in their influence to engineer, propagate, or curb corruption in cities. Through the examples given, the source is essential in emphasizing the importance of multi-agency cooperation in reducing corruption and boosting faster socioeconomic urban development in cities not only in sub-Saharan Africa but also in other areas around the world (Williams, et, al., 2018).

Africa is the most corrupt continent in the world. Similarly, it happens to be the wealthiest continent; however, most of the people in the continent live below the poverty line. Most of the African activists are questioning the role of their leaders in contributing to their deplorable conditions. Also, with the rising literacy levels in Africa, the people are questioning their conditions that do not correspond with their wealth and resources. Most countries, especially China, the European Union, and the American nations, have started taking particular interest in sub-Saharan Africa. China is the most significant creditor of African countries in their quest to take advantage of the corruption in these countries and benefit from their resources. The biggest question now is who the biggest threat to African development is? Unfortunately, greedy leaders, and hence, corruption seems to be the only logical answer.

Chapter 3

Research Methods

Research Approach

According to Forrester (2010), a research approach defines the various techniques applied in a scientific study to gather, assess, and evaluate information that can help in achieving the research objectives. In a study conducted by Forrester (2010), it is argued that scientific research can either take an inductive or deductive approach. Inductive approaches involve the development of new theorem based on existing findings, while deductive approaches entail proving the validity of existing theory and hypotheses using new data (Bryman et al., 2015). Despite their difference, both approaches involve the gathering of data from either secondary or primary sources and making evidence-based conclusions that are relevant to the aims and objectives of the study (Gill et al., 2010). The main aim of the proposed research is to investigate the socioeconomic impacts of corruption in SSA. The proposed study will, therefore, collect data from both secondary and primary sources for further analysis and derivation of conclusions as to the socioeconomic impacts of corruption in SSA. Hence, the study will adopt the deductive research approach.

Research Design

Forrester (2010) defines research design as the structured framework used in achieving the underlying research objectives. Ideally, the entire process is systematic and comprises the collection, assessment, analysis, and formulation of a comprehensive solution based on the underlying research question (Bryman et al., 2015). According to Forrester (2010), recent studies have adopted either qualitative or quantitative research designs; although taking a mixed approach would encompass elements of the two approaches. Nonetheless, Forrester (2010) asserted that qualitative research design entails a comprehensive understanding of the underlying research concepts and how they can be used in conjunction with subjective perspectives from the respondents to make meaningful conclusions. Conversely, according to Coolican (2017), quantitative research design uses empirical data, modelling, and trends to develop new hypotheses or theories. Therefore, concerning identifying the socioeconomic impacts of corruption in SSA, there needs to be an overview and understanding of how corruption, directly and indirectly, affects the socioeconomic welfare of communities living in SSA. Hence, the proposed study intends to use a qualitative research design. Several theoretical underpinnings are informing the selection of qualitative research design for the proposed study. According to Forrester (2010), qualitative research design enables the evaluation of subjective human experience based on non-statistical methods of data collection and analysis. Because the current study seeks to understand the subjective experience of how corruption impacts on the socioeconomic lives of communities in SSA, the qualitative research design emerges as the best option. Coolican (2017) likened it to a naturalistic inquiry, where complex human experiences are examined for purposes of deriving meaningful data from them (Gill et al., 2010).

Data Collection

The proposed study intends to use a combination of both primary and secondary sources of data. Here, some of the secondary sources of data will be peer-reviewed journal articles, global and continental economic reports, government economic reports, socioeconomic commentaries, and institutional reports (Bryman et al., 2015). On the other hand, primary data will be derived from an online survey targeting the SSA population. The study will be conducted through ‘SurveyMonkey,’ an online survey platform. The researcher will send out a public notice in the targeted SSA countries requesting participation. To encourage participation, the researcher will award a 10-dollar online purchase voucher for every participant. Afterward, each participant will be asked to participate in the survey anytime within the survey period. The study will be conducted in the English language for Anglophone SSA countries, and French language for Francophone SSA countries.

Sampling Method

The World Population Review (WPR) maintains a register of most corrupt counties in the world. The proposed study will rely on the latest report by WRP on the most corrupt nations in SSA and select the first five countries at the top of the list. The researcher will then conveniently target five individuals from each country on a first-come-first-served basis. Hence, upon selecting the target countries, the researcher will send out a public invitation to participate through major social media platforms (i.e., Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter), with a notice that the only the first five potential participants to express interest will be selected to participate. While there is a possibility of sampling error likely to be associated with convenient sampling Collis & Hussey (2013), it is seen as the most effective in this care because the researcher is likely to save time and money with it (Bryman et al., 2015). Nonetheless, the study will only include participants of 18 years old and above. Furthermore, in the interest of integrity and non-biased opinion, the researcher will ask participants not to consider participating if they consciously know that they have participated in any corruption undertaking.

Data Analysis

A large amount of data is likely to be collected through the online survey (Gill et al., 2010). This is especially possible because the survey will request participants to explain their experiences with corruption and how it has affected their social and economic lives. Therefore, the researcher intends to adopt the thematic data analysis method to analyse the survey data. Ideally, according to Coolican (2017), thematic analysis is a data assessment and analysis process that involves the identification and categorization of similar sets of data into specific themes. The process begins by identifying patterns of data from the survey and organizing them into codes. The researcher will then derive themes from the coded data. Each theme will then be defined and discussed in comparison with existing secondary data (Gill et al., 2010).

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Ethical Considerations

Because the proposed study will involve human subjects, the researcher will make several ethical considerations in line with the University’s research ethical standards. First, the researcher will uphold the integrity of each participant by maintaining the quality of each set of data collected through the survey. Secondly, the researcher will maintain the anonymity of each participant to respect their confidentiality. This will be done by avoiding the inclusion of any personal data such as email addresses, names, or personal identification numbers in the study. The researcher will also ensure that all the responses are willingly provided by requesting all the participants to sign a consent form. According to Collis & Hussey (2013), informed consent should be signed by participants before participating in any qualitative study because it basically allows them to consider whether they want to participate or not based on the information they have. The researcher will also seek ethical approval from the University’s ethics committee, as a sign of compliance to generally research ethics.

References

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Bah, E., Faye, I. and Geh, Z. (2018). The Political Economy of Housing Development in Africa. Housing Market Dynamics in Africa, pp.23-55.

Besley, T. and A. Prat. (2006). Handcuffs for the Grabbing Hand? Media Capture and Government Accountability. American Economic Review 96 (3): 720-736.

Collis, J., & Hussey, R. (2013) Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate

Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana (2018). Urbanization and Migration in Africa. New York: United Nations Headquarters, pp.1-22.

Forrester, A. (Ed.). (2010) Doing qualitative research in psychology: A practical guide, Sage

Joseph, F., Theresa, Y., Ponlapat, B., Guojin, C., and Zhen, P. (2016). Causes of Corruption: Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences (SAJEMS), 19, pp.562-578.

Klein, M.W., (2005). Capital Account Liberalization, Institutional Quality and Economic Growth: Theory and Evidence. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series No. 11112.

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Mohamed, M., Kaliappan, S., Ismail, N., and Azman-Saini, W. (2015). Effect of foreign aid on corruption: evidence from Sub-Saharan African countries. International Journal of Social Economics, 42(1), pp.47-63.

Turok, I. and McGranahan, G. (2013). Urbanization and economic growth: the arguments and evidence for Africa and Asia. Environment and Urbanization, 25(2), pp.465-482.

UNDP (2019). 2018 Africa Sustainable Development Report. New York, United States: United Nations Development Programme.