Social And Educational Research And Related Concepts

Introduction to Different Research Paradigms

In the broader spectrum of empirical studies, scholars and researchers ought to master how to articulate and comprehend beliefs concerning the nature of reality, what can be understood about the nature of reality and indeed the approaches towards the attainment of such knowledge. This work relies on Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996), the definition of a paradigm; as a fundamental belief system an approach of mastering the reality of the universe and exploring them in research. It is believed that through paradigms; our minds induce a powerful effect since they make a lens through which we perceive the world.

According to Richards (2013), ontology explains “the nature of our beliefs about reality” (p.33). Scholars in many cases tend to possess assumptions concerning reality, its existence, and what can be known and understood about it. In many cases, it is through the logical assumptions and generally ontological questions that the researchers get to lay foundations to establish which sort of reality does exist between “a singular, verifiable reality and truth or ... socially constructed multiple realities” (Krauss, 2005).

Epistemology seeks to explore the nature and existing forms of knowledge and how such knowledge can be obtained and disseminated to other people for consumption. Gall, Gall, and Borg (2003 p. 13) define epistemology as “the branch of philosophy which explores the nature of knowledge and the process by which knowledge is obtained and validated”. In the eve of research, it is usually the constructs of epistemological question that drive the researcher into a debate on fundamental tenets such as the possibility, subjectivity, objectivity, validity, causality, and generalisability of the research topic. Additionally, the adherence to the ontological belief system either implicitly or explicitly directs the researcher towards particular epistemological assumptions.

Methodology seeks to unravel the informed approaches by which data can be extracted for analyses and logical conclusions. Methodology aims to study and critically analyse data production logistics. According to Mackenzie, and Knipe (2006), research methodology refers to the “strategy, plan of action, process, and design” which inspires one’s selection of research methods. Moreover, research methodology focuses on how particular research should be approached and undertaken. The methodology provides a blueprint for the researcher to decide which kind of data is vital and which data collection tools are mandatory in the field. It is by the methodological question that the researcher gets to interrogate how the world should be explored and studied.

Research methods constitute particular means of gathering and synthesizing data; including the use of questionnaires, and interviews. The methods that are used in research highly depend on the design of the research project and indeed the researcher’s general mindset. Notably, the application of some methods does not constitute epistemological and ontological assumptions.

Meaning of Concepts Underlying Social and Educational Research (Research Glossary)

This section intends to examine fundamental terminologies usually applied in the field of social and educational research. The in-depth mastery of such terms provides for the basis of alleviating confusion and inspires the scientific application of terminologies in empirical studies.

Knowledge

Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995 p. 87) provide the commonly adopted definition of knowledge as “justified true belief”. Based on its meaning, knowledge is characterised by three basic conditions namely; the truth condition which demands that if indeed one knows a premise; then that premise ought to be true, and if he does not, then that individual does not know what he/she claims to know. The truth condition provides the distinction between knowledge and opinion. The second condition; the belief condition requires that if one knows the premise, then he/she believes that premise.

Social sciences

Social science is the branch of knowledge which seeks to explore society and human behaviours (Creswell, 2002). It is an umbrella term which encompasses fields outside natural science contexts and includes areas such as anthropology, economics, anthropology, criminology, archeology, linguistics, history, education, political science, law, sociology, psychology, and geography. Social science is an area of concern to many researchers since it unravels subtle problems and complex issues in the complex societies, and seeking to comprehend the issues calls for a logical form of thinking (Borgatti et al., 2009).

Triangulation

Triangulation in the context of social sciences refers t the mixing of research methods or data in the pursuit to draw diverse viewpoints upon the topic under study (Morse, 1991). The blending of data types (data triangulation) helps in validating the propositions which would arise from the prior pilot study. Triangulation is an essential tool which provides for data validation from two or more sources. Triangulation seeks to combine and apply more than one research method in the study of one phenomenon (Hartley, and Sturm, 1997).

Hypothesis

The hypothesis in research refers to a tentative statement on the topic under study whose validity is unknown. Additionally, it relates to a proposition which is stated in a testable manner and which infers and predicts a specific relationship between multiple variables as given. A hypothesis is normally written in a way which can either be proven or disproven by reliable and valid data after the study is conducted. Assumptions in research serve various purposes. First, it brings clarity to the problem under investigation. Secondly, it induces a sense of focus into the study, enhances study objectivity, formulates the theories and enables the researcher to conclude that which is true or false (Wampold, Davis, and Good, 1990).

Educational research

Educational research refers to the chronological effort to obtain a better comprehension of educational practices and processes with the pursuit to improve our effectiveness. It employs scientific methods to the understanding of educational crises and problems. Scholarly research is characterised its tendency to seek solutions to issues underpinning the educational sector and strives to answer questions or establish the causal relationship between two or more variables. Scholarly research is the source of dependable through which educational processes are made more efficient (Thompson, 1995).

Non-formal Education Contexts

Non-formal education refers to organized learning processes and opportunities in which learners control their learning processes independently of existing curricula. In this form of learning, learners are inspired to take accountability of learning experiences and take control of their own lives. Additionally, the learning experiences are meant to empower the students to be able to make justified decisions and develop their communities (Scherer, 2003).

Non-formal unlike formal education contexts do not call for compulsory attendance. Participation in learning experiences is optional as well, and the leaning venues can take place outside the classroom contexts. Learning is student-centered, and the education assumes that learners are autonomously developed to absorb hat they critically need to help them make sound decisions about things which most matter in life (Swain, 2005).

Non-formal education was initiated as an option to seal the many challenges which resulted from dysfunction educational system, problems of irrelevant curricula, increased levels of illiteracy, inadequate educational resources, and management of educational tools. According to Coombs (1968), the scrutiny and analysis of the educational crisis in the world motivated the conception of non-formal education.

Non-formal education inspired the development of new strategies which emphasizes the participation and democratization of people in learning for improved quality of life. The form of education articulates various issues and provides a rich knowledge which the learners can immediately apply in improving their social wellbeing. The kind of learning provides relevant skills and knowledge required for sustainable decisions in life.

The conception of non-formal education led to emergence of a controversial debate concerning its purpose, content, timing, control and delivery systems. These tenets are mutually interconnected. The setting of non-formal takes place in various environmental circumstances. Its structure and foundations are flexible, adaptable and versatile. These characteristics render non-formal education hard to operationalize in a structured context. For learning to remain non-formal there ought to be efforts aimed at its structural and administrative changes followed by delegation and decentralization of authority (Rogers, A., 2007).

La Belle (1976) maintains that non-formal programmes must induce change to the learners and influence their thinking and bahaviours in line to the intended objectives. The rationales behind the introduction of non-formal education are inscribed in the various impediments which arise from the dysfunction of formal education. Political independence in many countries accelerated its development, based on the premise that non-formal education was considered as a tool for economic and social development.

Based on the complex issues which underlay the educational system and their causative agents, solutions to such problems were not readily in provision. This inspired the advent of an adaptive, versatile and flexible sort of education that could impact people; socially economically and also promote environmental awareness and ethics. The emergence of ecological challenges such as climate change, an introduction of invasive species, pollution and species extinction also required that a particular sort of education (non-formal) be applied in bringing sanity and normalcy into the planet (Eraut, 2000).

This portfolio, in the end, refers to the vitality of social and educational research in the provision of justified and reliable information which is synthesizable and worth of informing both present and future posterities. The practice and conduction of research ought to be systematic and guided by educational paradigms and principles as this is the avenue into a logical conclusion.

References

• Borgatti, S.P., Mehra, A., Brass, D.J. and Labianca, G., 2009. Network analysis in the social sciences. Science, 323(5916), pp.892-895.
• Coombs, P.H., 1968. The world educational crisis (pp. 145-149). New York: Oxford University Press.
• Creswell, J.W., 2002. Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative (pp. 146-166). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Eraut, M., 2000. Non‐formal learning and tacit knowledge in professional work. British journal of educational psychology, 70(1), pp.113-136.
• Gall, M.D., Borg, W.R. and Gall, J.P., 1996. Educational research: An introduction. Longman Publishing.
• Hartley, R.I. and Sturm, P., 1997. Triangulation. Computer vision and image understanding, 68(2), pp.146-157.
• Krauss, S.E., 2005. Research paradigms and meaning making: A primer. The qualitative report, 10(4), pp.758-770.
• La Belle, T. and Verhine, R., 1975. Nonformal education and occupational stratification: Implications for Latin America. Harvard Educational Review, 45(2), pp.160-190.
• Mackenzie, N. and Knipe, S., 2006. Research dilemmas: Paradigms, methods and methodology. Issues in educational research, 16(2), pp.193-205.
• Morse, J.M., 1991. Approaches to qualitative-quantitative methodological triangulation. Nursing research, 40(2), pp.120-123.
• Rogers, A., 2007. Non-formal education: Flexible schooling or participatory education? (Vol. 15). Springer Science & Business Media.
• Scherer, K.R., 2003. Vocal communication of emotion: A review of research paradigms. Speech communication, 40(1-2), pp.227-256.
• Swain, M., 2005. The output hypothesis: Theory and research. In Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 495-508). Routledge.
• Thompson, J.D., 1995. Curriculum Development in Non-Formal Education.
• Wampold, B.E., Davis, B. and Good III, R.H., 1990. Hypothesis validity of clinical research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58(3), p.360.
• Weber, M., 2017. Methodology of social sciences. Routledge.