Program Design and Coaching Considerations for Wheelchair Athletes

Introduction and Background

The British Wheelchair Racing Association (BWRA) is the body responsible for wheelchair racing in the United Kingdom. It is charged with promoting participation, governance and equality for disabled people in the existing sport both on track and road. However, wheelchair racing is just part of a wider sport for athletes with impairment that has existed for more than 100 years. Initially, sports for athletes with impairment was popularised especially after World War II to assist the large number of war veterans who were disabled during wartime. Today, there is a Paralympic Movement governed by the International Paralympic Committee. There is a classification system for World Para Athletics to determine eligibility to compete in World Para Athletics competitions and sports classification. Athletes are classified into different categories based on visual and co-ordination impairments (Morriën, Taylor & Hettinga, 2017). There are different categories including running track and jumping, wheelchair racing, standing throws, and seated throws. This paper will focus majorly on wheelchair athletes in relation to track classification system. Accordingly, this paper will focus on the issues that impact the programme design and coaching process of wheelchair athletes. In particular, more attention will be placed on the physiological, biomechanical, psychological and sociological issues connected to the programme design and coaching of wheelchair athletes. Also, for individuals who are seeking guidance in their academic pursuits related to this particular field, specialised services like UK dissertation help offer valuable assistance.

Coaching is an important aspect of a wheelchair athlete’s life. Coaches come up with designs and plans that they use to teach life skills to athletes with the aim of establishing positive relationships. After establishing a positive relationship with an athlete, the couch must then consider the appropriate design for the improvement of the athlete. The most important factors that influence an athlete’s performance in these races are the psychological and biomechanical issues relating to the sport. In the field of wheelchair propulsion, it is important to consider the performance and injuries that may be inflicted on the participating athlete. As a consequence a balance must be struck between the risk of injury and the need to optimise the performance of wheelchair athletes (Leicht et al., 2013). For many athletes with disabilities participating in the Paralympic Games, the main dilemma is how to train hard to maximise performance while also reducing the risk of injuries. It is thus the province of this study to examine the biomechanical and psychological issues associated with chair propulsion for wheelchair athletes and how this affects the work of S&C practitioners. Consequently, the foregoing section will delve into detail the effects of the above factors on the programme design and coaching process. Continue your journey with our comprehensive guide to Sports Governance and Trade Restrictions.

Biomechanical Considerations

On the authority of McLaurin and Brubaker (1991), wheelchair biometrics is the study of how a wheelchair user exerts power to the wheels to bring about mobility, and it explains how user’s body interacts with the wheelchair. Wheelchair racing was introduced in the 1940s, since then the sport has evolved tremendously. Through the development of wheelchairs, the sport has had improved changes in performance over the years. Notably, the designs of wheelchairs has gradually changed and this can be seen through the changing diameter of the rear wheels, lowering the seat and push rims, modifying the frame, cambering the rear wheels and moving them forward (Curran & Frossard, 2012). A number of these changes were introduced by the athletes themselves with the aim of improving performance and improving safety of the wheelchair. Over the years, the design of the wheelchair has been transformed into a streamlined, lightweight racing machine adapted to the athletes’ needs. However, all the above changes have not settled the debate on what an ideal Paralympic wheel chair should look like.

Any coach must take into account factors like the physical capacity of the individual, strength of the upper body, the interaction between the user and the wheelchair and the level of neurological lesion. The design of a wheelchair may also affect the performance of an athlete. In the same vein, the chair propulsion is affected by the seat position of the athlete. To achieve optimal propulsion, researchers have come up with new designs and ideal seat positions with the aim of improving the athletes’ performance (Amancio et al., 2017). Although the field of biomechanics is relatively new, research evidence obtained from experiments have largely been on the seating position and the design of a wheelchair in relation to the kinematics of wheelchair propulsion. Studies show that there are different types of propulsion including arc propulsion, double looping over propulsion, single loop over propulsion and semi-circular propulsion (Vanlandewijck, Theisen & Daly, 2001). Each pattern of propulsion is determined not by the design of the wheel chair but the level and type impairment of the user. For this reason it is important for both the athlete and the coach to consider the user characteristics and intended activities before deciding on the design. Manual wheelchair propulsion in sports has therefore attracted a growing body of research that is examining the biomechanical aspects of wheelchair use.

For a long time it was not clear whether there was a correlation between wheel chair propulsion biomechanics and user’s quality of life. A study by Chow and Levy published in 2010 investigated the associations between wheelchair propulsion biomechanics and the quality of life of manual wheelchair users (Chow &Levy, 2010). They found that there was indeed a positive impact on the quality of life from wheelchair sports participation. In particular, study noted that the knowledge acquired from the study of wheelchair propulsion is important in enhancing wheelchair’s mobility and is capable of reducing physical stress related to wheelchair propulsion. In other words, the researchers concluded that because the study of wheelchair biomechanics was intended to enhance the performance of athletes and reduce risk of injuries, it basically enhances the quality of life of athletes involved. This kind of research is useful for coaches and athletes since it can help in the design of a process that takes into account all factors relevant to make the life of the athlete better while optimising performance. Undoubtedly, there is physical stress associated with wheelchair propulsion and this can be reduced by the application of the right biomechanical measures to enhance the quality of life an athlete.

Apart from wheelchair racing, studies have often considered the biomechanical aspects of wheelchair in basketball. In this regard, the common areas of focus include: push synchrony, upper limbs kinematics, wheelchair propulsion technique, mechanical efficiency of frequency and the optimisation of wheelchair configuration and ergonomics. In a population specific study carried out by Bargamini et al, it was found that the various estimated indices used in the research were useful in identifying both strength and coordinated improvements after a training administration (Bergamini et al, 2015). Other studies have indicated that stretching, strengthening and aerobic exercises enhanced propulsion biomechanical economy without necessarily exacerbating elbow and shoulder stresses (Serinken, Gençoğlu, & Kayatekin, 2013). It follows that certain exercises if properly incorporated in the training designs can enhance performance of the athlete without further stress on the athlete. However, the same study indicated that eccentric exercises could increases physical stress on the athlete. It appears from the above works that the success of any wheelchair technique depends on the application of the relevant critical factors in the development of training programs. Further, it is important to identify the target population and sport involved then customising any techniques to fit the needs of that group.

Training is an important aspect of an athlete’s life in preparation of sporting competitions. Equally, wheelchair athletes need to practice as often as possible to become better at the sport and optimise their performances. Athletes and their coaches are thus faced with the challenge of maximising training related gains in performance while minimising any risks of injury. To overcome this challenge it is important to turn to the constraints led approach of dynamical systems to find out the key issues affecting wheel chair propulsion. Performance measures in different sports can be measured through the distance thrown during throwing events or time to complete a set distance during a track event. there are a number of constraints to performance including, task constraints, environmental and organism constraints like wheel chair set up, player classifications, training and injury risk factors. Normally, the constraints approach is used for able bodied sport but it can still be applied to wheel chair propulsion biomechanics to aid in identifying the critical areas for focus.

There is a large body of research into the effect of factors like chair setup and player classification effect on wheelchair propulsion in Paralympic sports. However, the area of effects or training and injury on the user’s performance in terms of wheelchair propulsion biomechanics has not been adequately explored. Emerging studies in this area have shown that the incorporation of resistance exercises in the training program of athletes caused significant improvement in their performance. In essence, resistance training programmes have the potential to cause enhanced strength and power parameters in the tested subjects. In general resistance training exercises are important for athletes because they can improve the wheelchair propulsion without necessarily increasing injury risks (Charton & Keogh, 2013). For this reason, a coaching practitioner should take this into account during the development of a training programme for their wheelchair athletes. Injury is serious constraint against the performance of athletes and may even increase the risk of future injuries. As a result, it is an area that all coaches and athletes take seriously because it can significantly disrupt the career of an athlete.

Paralympic athletes majorly depend on their upper extremity for mobility and sport, their upper bodies are prone to injury and when it happens the consequences can be quite serious. Charton and Keogh (2013) have found that the stroke patterns used by wheelchair athletes may have a connection with the injury risk. The researchers explain that the position of the athlete on the wheelchair may affect the overall shoulder stresses. In essence, the above research evidence can be used to by practitioners and coaches to design training programmes that reduce the injury or stress factors on the athlete for a better performance. The nature of wheeled sports is such that the winning athlete must have and sustain a greater velocity than their opponents. A greater velocity or momentum can only be obtained by applying an increasingly large propulsive force to the hand rim over a decreasing period of time. Therefore, Keogh argues that the sport requires high levels of strength and rate of force development because of the impulse and momentum relationship (Koegh, 2011). It follows that in wheelchair racing for Paralympic athletes coaching programme should be designed to take into account the development of strength in an athlete as well as the ability to apply that force when needed.

Psychological and Physiological Considerations

Wheelchair racing is one of the adapted sport (AS) opportunities for athletes with spinal cord injuries. This sport is increasingly becoming popular and studies have focused more on the sport- chair design and athlete chair interface than on the athlete as a person. It is thus important to look at the psychological responses of athletes in Paralympic sports to inform training designs improvements for coaches and athletes. The quest to improve the performance of athletes including the wheelchair propulsion is not only dependent on the biomechanical aspects but also the psychological and social factors surrounding the athlete. Studies on the psychological responses of athletes during races provide important information on the oxygen consumption rate, heart rate and other relevant factors. Moreover, research evidence on able-body athletes indicate that information on oxygen consumption rate is vital when quantifying exercise intensity and determining the psychological demands unique to a given type of exercise. Similarly, a psychological approach to wheelchair athletes is important because it will enable coaches design appropriate training programmes that take into account the athlete’s physiological reactions during sporting activities. For instance, a coach may be able to design training exercises that are intended to improve the athlete’s performance in race having taken into account the physiological demand associated with such race.

Although, there exists a number of research in this area, most of the studies were conducted on simulated treadmill trials which may not reflect the exact conditions in a race track or court. There is a risk of the results not accounting for the environmental conditions thereby possibly underestimating racing challenges. Be it as it may, these kind of research has formed a basis for future research in the area of psychological considerations for wheelchair athletes. In this regard, the development of portable metabolic measurement devices has spurred research in the area with the advantage of real-time investigation of physiological responses in the actual field. In view of the above, a recent study conducted on the backdrop of technological advances in the area examined the physiological responses of wheel chair racing athletes. The study found that the physiological response of wheelchair racing athletes to long periods of aerobic exercises was different from that of able-bodied athletes. While previous studies have shown that able-bodies athletes expended between 840-900 kcal/min, the present study found that wheel chair racing athletes has an average of 508.1 kcal/min. The upshot of the above research evidence is that the training design for able-bodied athletes should be substantially be different from wheelchair athletes because of the varying physiological demands.

On the sport psychology front, it is essential to consider factors such as coping, motivation and mental skills training as a way to improving performance in the sport. Therefore it may be necessary for the coaching staff to consider the inclusion of experts like neurologist, orthoptists, prosthetists, orthopaedic specialist and functional physiotherapist. As a couch, one should practice an inclusive philosophy, welcoming all to the team without discrimination since Paralympics has many levels and classification attendant to it. Athletes should be encouraged to be involved in their own development and inspired to take greater responsibility for it. Further, the coach should adopt an athlete centred approach in which the needs of the athletes come before that of the coach, club or other interests. An ideal program should therefore have a number of activities such as educating, acquiring psychological skills, developing a programme and the actual game situation. This will help the athletes realise positive changes in emotional control, self-talk and goal setting of wheelchair athletes. Lim et al (2018) argues that subjecting wheelchair athletes to psychological activities had a positive impact on their performance and reduced anxiety. It follows that coaches should design training programmes that take into account athlete’s psychological issues so as to strengthen them mentally for challenging tasks and the big stages like the Olympics.

Conclusion.

Wheel propulsion in wheelchair racing or any other sport has an impact on the performance of an athlete. It is for this reason that several studies have been undertaken in the field of wheel propulsion biomechanical with the aim of improving performance. As seen in the above discussion of biomechanical wheel propulsion and athlete performance, this is a critical area for coaches to consider and incorporate in the training programs. There is need to come up with training exercises that take into account factors like the design of the wheelchair, seating position of the athlete, classification of players among other factors that affect performance. More importantly, it is essential to link performance with other factors like psychological and physiological needs of the athletes. The underlying theme in all the said factors is the need to achieve performance without increasing the risk of injury to the athletes. All in all coaches have to strike a balance between training for improved performance and reducing risk of injury to players.

References

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