Addressing the UK Housing Crisis

Chapter 1: Introduction

The UN laid out seventeen Standard Development Goals (SDGs). The goals are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and to ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity (UNDP 2019). All goals are interrelated in the sense that tackling one of the goals has positive ripple effects onto other goals. The 11th SDG relates to sustainable cities and communities (UNDP 2019). The goal majorly focuses on urban centers where there is an extreme concentration of poverty. However, a vital factor of the goal is ensuring that individuals have access to safe and affordable housing (UNDP 2019). Having access to safe and sustainable housing is paramount to improve the overall well-being of a country’s citizens. The UK has been failing in providing affordable housing for its citizens, which has led to an unprecedented housing crisis. One does not need to be an expert in housing or planning to be concerned about the magnitude of the current house crisis that is being experienced in the UK. An overwhelming population of UK citizens faces the issue of deteriorating housing affordability. The Median house prices are ten times more than the median income, the building of more houses does not meet the demand, and the costs of homes are incredibly volatile (Dianati, Zimmermann, & Davies 2017). There have been a number of well-intentioned remedies, but some of them are not working fast enough, or they are inevitably making the issue worse.

The key identified reason why there is a housing crisis is that the number of affordable homes is very few. Housing Secretary James Brokenshire notes that there are significant issues in housing, and it ultimately boils down to building more homes (Geraghty 2018). A key challenge is how to build the houses in a manner that will make the houses affordable to the masses. The government has pledged to build 250,000 homes by 2022 to tackle the housing crisis (BBC 2019). However, a number of experts are stating that at least 1.3 million households need to be built if the housing crisis is going to be tackled (BBC 2019). The Office for National Statistics (ONS) wrote a paper titled “Housing affordability in England and Wales: 2017” where they note that current housing is unsustainable since it costs an average worker 7.8 times their salary (Office for National Statistics 2017). The UK Housing Index notes that the average price of a property is increasing by 4.2% each year (Taylor 2018). It is the millennial generation, which has been affected the most by the skyrocketing housing prices (Conway 2019). The above information shows that the housing crisis that the UK is experiencing is severe enough to warrant study.

Aim of the research

The purpose and aim of this paper is to carry out an investigation into the housing crisis and its socio-economic and environmental implications in the UK. The aim was selected since it was noticed during the literature review that a lot of the information that was available focused on the housing crisis at the expense of the implications of the crisis. Additionally, the socio-economic impact was selected because many people are trying to access affordable housing, but they are limited by their position on the socio-economic ladder. Moreover, trying to access sustainable housing is done at the expense of one’s financial future. The environmental impact was also selected because the proposed solutions will have some environmental impacts, and the current housing crisis is also affecting the environment.

Objectives

To achieve the above aim, the following objectives will act as a guide.

To review the relevant literature concerning social housing in the UK.

To examine the historical background of the housing situation in the UK.

To review the socio-economic and environmental implications of the housing crisis in the UK.

To discuss how the effects of the housing crisis can be mitigated.

Understanding what the housing crisis means in the context of the UK and exploring its historical background may help in setting up aggressive and sustainable policies that will help in combatting the housing crisis that the UK. Additionally, it is essential to view the housing crisis through the veil of the socio-economic and environmental impacts that it has throughout the UK. Understanding the effects of the housing crisis will help in generating policies that will aid in mitigating, reducing, or eliminating the impact of the housing crisis.

Research Questions

The key research question that will guide the study is:

What are the socio-economic and environmental implications of the housing crisis in the UK?

The sub-questions that will help flesh out the study are:

What does the housing crisis mean in the context of the UK?

What is the history of housing in the UK, and how has it changed over the years?

What are the socio-economic and environmental implications in the UK?

Can the effects of the housing crisis be mitigated or changed?

Chapters Outline

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The research has been structured as follows. In the first chapter, an introduction to the housing crisis and why it should be considered a crisis is carried. Additionally, the aim, objectives, and research questions are laid out. In the second chapter, the background of the housing crisis is set. The background will revolve around the history of the UK housing crisis and the various theoretical perspectives that will be applied to understand the issue. In the third chapter, the methodology, inclusion and exclusion criteria, methods of analyzing the data, and the primary data collection instruments is expounded upon. The fourth chapter will revolve around a literature review of the current literature on the housing crisis and its impacts on the UK and its citizens. The fifth chapter will be a discussion of the literature review. The sixth chapter will be the conclusion of the study.

The background of the housing crisis will be set; a literature review shall be carried out, and discussions shall be carried out. It is essential to understand the socio-economic and environmental impacts of the UK housing crisis so that a holistic understanding of the issue may be achieved.

Chapter 2: Background

The housing crisis in the UK is one that has is both a social and political issue. It is important to understand the background of the crisis before exploring the socioeconomic and environmental implications. This section will explore the background as well as show the theoretical framework that has been applied, the selected methodology, search strategy and the inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Housing Demand and Supply and the Economy Situation

Housing in the UK has not only been a social issue but a political issue. Robertson (2016) notes that the resurgence of housing as a political issue is not surprising given the history of housing as a political issue. The foundations of the contemporary housing system were laid in the period following World War I (Robertson 2016). The housing demand along with the unique conditions that were presented in the World Wars caused the UK government to invest heavily in housing to address the housing shortages that were being experienced during that time (Hashemi 2013). The UK government decided to invest heavily in prefabricated methods of construction as a means through which they would combat the housing shortages that were being experienced at that time. Hashemi notes, “The general belief was that by applying advanced technologies, housing would change from an expensive capital investment to an easily available product. The core belief was that just like other goods, houses could be mass-manufactured from main components.” The System building significantly transformed the UK construction industry and affected the socio-economic conditions of the UK, and some of the consequences are still being felt to this day (Hashemi 2013). Generally, the purposes of building the houses have not been particularly successful in the UK due to a number of reasons with the key of them being inconsistent governmental policies (Hashemi 2013). Osbourn (1989) notes that the government tended to focus more on the quantity of housing rather than on the quality of the accommodation. In a number of recorded cases, many designers failed to consider the aesthetic aspects of the house, and they built houses that did not consider the identity of the tenants that they were targeting (Osbourn 1989). The repercussion of concentrating on quantity at the expense of quality is that there was an increase in a number of social problems such as depression, vandalism, and various other crimes (1989). Therefore, focusing on quantity led to the construction of houses that were not durable and some which could only be occupied for a short while. The 20th Century saw a fluctuation in the demand and supply of housing in the UK. There were several booms and busts in the UK housing market, but the general trend of housing has been downwards. According to Wilcox (2005), “the rate of new housing being built decreased from over 250,000 in the mid-1970s to 200,000 in 1989, then to 150,000 in 2004.” The reason why there has been a downward shift in the UK housing situation is mainly two-fold. First, “there has been a precipitous reduction in the government’s investment in social housing” (Wilcox 2005). Second, “there has been a massive decline in the rate of private-sector house building” (Wilcox 2005). The low levels of investment in housing have led to an increase in house prices while interest rates decreased, and the economy improved. Simply, the demand for houses outweighed the supply, and that caused the costs of the houses that are in the market to increase precipitously. Private sector investment in housing fluctuated over the years, and the social housing decreased due to a lack of political support. The government reduced the budget allocated to social housing between 1993-1995 (Garnet and Perry 2005). In general, the number of houses being built in the UK has been fluctuating in the UK since 1965, but the trend has been going downwards. There was a time in the UK where the housing shortage was over. Hashemi (2013) notes that “in 1981 there was a housing surplus of more than 910,000 houses, which then decreased in 1998 to 480,000”. However, the housing surplus of 1998 was more of a smokescreen because it did not show the actual situation on the ground. The situation on the ground showed that there were “more than a million houses which were in poor condition” (Balchin & Rhoden 2002). Additionally, there was a disparity in the number of houses that were available in different parts of the country. There were many cheap houses available in the Midlands and North while there was a looming housing shortage in the South and in London (Balchin & Rhoden 2002). In the 1990s, there were many tell-tale signs that implied that the economy was about to experience a recession. “Inflation fell from 20% in 1980 to 2-3% in 1996; interest rates decreased from 15% to less than 5%; unemployment decreased from 12% to less than 6% in the 1990s” (Hashemi 2013). The signs were positive, but the housing market did not respond in kind. People were not confident in the housing market. The economy had low-interest rates which made houses affordable since people could take affordable mortgages, but the memory of high-interest rates in the 1980s still lingered in the collective psyche of the people (Blachin & Rhoden 2002). People were afraid that there was a possibility of interest rates increasing in the future, which made people not choose to take mortgages despite their affordability. Currently, the housing market is still striving to recover from the global credit crunch. Hashemi (2013) notes that “around 233,000 units need to be built annually if the current housing crisis is going to be averted.” There is a significant demand for quality housing, yet the supply still does not meet the demand.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework that will be applied in the course of the study is systems theory. Systems theory is fundamental in understanding the research and the various variables of the study. Healy (2014) notes that in systems theory, the individual does not operate in isolation, but they work within more than one critical system and networks. The systems may be public, private, formal, or informal. The theory also maintains that changing a single variable within the system has ripple effects within the whole system. Basically, all variables are interconnected within the system, and the effects or impacts that are experienced are not a factor of one variable but many intertwined variables. A key advantage of the systems theory is that its focus is not on the individual but the environment (Healy 2014). The approach focuses on the environment since it is more receptive to changes within the system as compared to individuals. Moreover, the theory does not focus on causal relationships, but it focuses on the pattern, which offers a greater understanding of the issue and the various impacts of the issue. However, the theory’s focus on trends is a critical weakness since some of the effects and impacts that have been generated by the housing crisis are based on a causal relationship between various variables. However, systems theory will aid in understanding the environmental and socio-economic impacts of the housing crisis.

Chapter 3: Methodology

The study was a qualitative one. A quantitative approach was considered, but it was found that it would require primary research, but there was a lack of available figures that could be analyzed statistically. Due to that fundamental limitation, a qualitative methodology was selected as the principal methodology. A qualitative approach was chosen since it will allow for a synthesis of the current and available literature. Secondary research was selected, and it helped meet the aims of the study since it helps in conducting an exploratory search of the effects that mass tourism has on the environment. Moreover, secondary research aided in identifying, evaluating, and summarizing all the relevant studies that were selected, which will help in making the information more accessible to the appropriate key decision-makers. Due to the range of research, narrative, and thematic analysis of the literature was carried out. Narrative analysis was selected as a means of evaluation due to the relatively high number of literature chosen for review, and it helped in reducing the literature to a manageable portion. Furthermore, the narrative analysis was selected because it is more flexible as compared to thematic analysis. Thematic analysis was chosen because it helped in arranging the data into various themes for greater understanding. Additionally, thematic analysis was chosen because it helped to identify the commonalities across the selected literature.

Search Strategy

The primary search engine that was applied is the library search engine. Google was also employed as another search engine. Most of the references that were retrieved from an online source were accessed by using Google as a search engine. There was no specific time period set for the search since some of the materials obtained are relatively old. Not setting a particular time within which the literature was published allowed for a wider pool from which research could be selected. Additionally, a set time period was not selected because of the second objective revolving around understanding the history of housing and the housing crisis in the UK. However, more recent publications were given greater precedence because more recent publications consider more current information which helps explore contemporary nuances revolving around the issue. The two search engines were utilized by using a combination of critical terms and keywords. The words that were selected revolved around the title of the paper and key aims. The key phrases and keywords that were used were: (i) housing crisis in the UK; (ii) history of housing in the UK; (iii) factors causing and influencing the housing crisis in the UK; (iv) impacts of housing crisis, socio-economic impacts, environmental impacts; (v) remedies to the housing impact in the UK. Literature revolving around any of the key terms or statements was selected and determined whether they fit the inclusion criteria.

Inclusion Criteria

Relating to the inclusion criteria the following types of studies were selected: investigations into the housing crisis in the UK; studies that showed the history of housing in the UK; studies that showed the history of the housing crisis in the UK; studies that showed the factors that led to the previous and current housing standards; qualitative and quantitative studies; studies published in peer-reviewed journals; studies published in various accredited journals; books on housing in the UK; online newspapers and reviews posted on various accredited websites. In terms of language, all the studies that were selected were written in English to help in comprehension.

Exclusion Criteria

In relation to the exclusion criteria, the following types of studies were excluded: investigations that talked about the housing crisis from the perspective of other countries; investigations that did not sit within the set inclusion criteria; non-peer reviewed studies; papers not published in accredited journals; blogs; Wikipedia and various uncredited sites; investigations not written in the English language. The selected literature was evaluated two or three times to ensure that they met the inclusion criteria. After a second and third evaluation, some studies were excluded from the literature review. Parts of the studies that were reviewed to ensure they met the inclusion criteria were the abstract, methodology section, conclusion, and implications for future research. Reviewing those specific parts of the study helped in condensing the investigation into a manageable portion.

Conclusion

The background section shows that demand for housing has always been relatively higher than supply more so during and after the two world wars. The issue is both a social and political one. The theoretical framework that is applied is systems theory, the methodology is qualitative, the library search engine and the internet were the primary search strategies, and various documents on the subject were included.

Chapter 4: Literature Review

The Literature Review section shall explore the various literature that has been published in relation to the housing crisis in the UK. The main themes that shall be explored shall revolve around the socioeconomic impacts of the housing crisis as well as the environmental impacts of the housing crisis. Before exploring the socioeconomic impacts, it is important to understand when and why the UK government became involved in housing as well as the different types of housing that have existed in the UK.

The UK Government’s Involvement in Housing

The World Wars were very destructive to housing, and that lead to a massive and very urgent need for new housing. It was this need that caused the UK government to decide to enter the housing market (Hashemi 2013). Finnimore (1989) notes that “the massive size of the proposed housing programmes was outside the scope of the traditional building resources and the companies that were in the market at that time.” Due to that, the government considered applying alternative construction methods which would utilize new materials and use the non-skilled laborers that were in the market. “There was a general belief that by using alternative methods of building, using different raw materials and applying advanced technology, housing would transform from capitally intensive investments to a product that was readily available for the masses” (Hashemi 2013). There was a general hope that just like many other goods in the market, houses could be mass-manufactured from main components (Finnimore 1989). The 1960s saw an increase in high rise flats that applied prefabricated building methods. However, while the buildings helped meet the demand for housing, there are many people who argued against constructing houses in such a manner (Finnimore 1989). During the 20th Century around one million homes were built using prefabricated building methods and this increased the negative public attitude towards the houses due to the low quality of the house designs, use of inferior materials and the poor building skills (Post 2003). Therefore, while the homes were designed to combat the high demand for houses, they were built at the expense of quality. As said above, due to the relatively high demand for housing, the UK government decided to get into the housing market. Historically, the government decided to join the housing market due to the housing shortage caused by the World Wars, slum clearance, and the high number of new families that did not have housing (Hashemi 2013). “After World War I, the housing shortage was around 600,000 in 1919, which then increased to 805,000 in 1921” (Bowley 1945). “After World War II, 475,000 houses were destroyed or rendered uninhabitable” (Hashemi, 2013). In addition to the number of houses that were damaged during that time, the population was also increasing, and there was a proportionate increase in the number if families too. Burnet (1993) notes that “there was a 7% increase in the population between 1961-1981, while the number of households increased by about 20%.” The growing population meant that “between 300,000-450,000 housing units were required after the war” (Burnett 1993). Considering the rising population and the number of houses that were destroyed, government intervention in the housing sector was inevitable. The government did not hesitate to act, and by 1957, around 2.5 million houses were built (Burnett 1993). The government was ambitious in its undertaking since they wanted to build 500,000 residential units per year until 1970. The goal was not achieved due to the economic crisis that was experienced in 1967 (Hashemi 2013). However, the number of housing units being constructed continued to increase, eventually peaking in 1968 by which time around 1.8 million houses was built by both the government and the private sector (Burnett 1993). Government intervention in the housing market was dependent on the party that was in power at the time. However, in the period during and after the war, the government was actively involved in the housing market due to the high shortages. Between 1970 and 1977, there was a decline in government intervention in council housing, and the government chose to hand over the market to the private sector (Burnett 1993).

Flats and System Building

In 1944, Winston Churchill wanted to build more than 500,000 houses from steel to help in meeting the housing demand. The program was managed by the government, but it was implemented by the private sector (Finnimore 1989). The government supported prefabrication since it was their aim to meet the supply without increasing the demand for conventional building resources, which would lead to an increase in the prices. “The goal of building 500,000 prefabricated houses was not met since only around 150,000 units were built” (Hashemi 2013). However, the units that were built lasted 10-15 years or more showing that at that time, the houses that were built were of good quality. After the wars, there was a change from prefabricated houses to flats. Before the World Wars, flats were not a common form of housing. The massive destruction caused by the World Wars couple with the government undertaking slum clearance led to a need for new construction methods (Hashemi 2013). The housing method that had the highest appeal was flats since they occupied less space, and they could be built to go higher than their predecessors. It was assumed that flats would be cheaper in terms of total construction cost, they would occupy less space, and new infrastructure in terms of electric lines and water pipes would not need to be put in place (Vale 1995). In the beginning, the flats were built using conventional means, which translated into building costs being more than 50% that of other traditional buildings (Finnimore 1989). To combat, the rising costs, it was discovered that flats built using prefabricated methods were 2% cheaper than those constructed using conventional means. The number of flats being built increased and reached 55% by 1964. “In 1966, the number of high-rise flats being constructed with more than five or more stories accounted for more than 26% of houses that were constructed in the UK” (Bowley 1945). However, the number of flats being built decreased over the years. The critical disaster which is said to have led to the end of the golden era of flats ending is the Ronan Point Disaster. Finnimore (1989) notes that “in 1968, there was a gas explosion that caused structural failure of a 22-story prefabricated block made out of Ronan blocks. The accident reaffirmed the argument of many people that constructing high rise towers out of precast blocks was not wise.” The disaster led to more high-rise buildings that had been built out of prefabricated blocks being demolished. During the demolishing of the buildings, a number of faults were discovered, such as issues with the mortar used in building and fatal design flaws that would have led to the eventual collapse of the buildings. The Ronan Point disaster led to a reduction in the number of high-rise buildings being constructed from prefabricated blocks from 43% to only 2% in the 1990s (Harvey & Ashworth 1997). Since the government had to abandon building using prefabricated blocks, new ideas had to be generated on how to build sustainable housing, and that led to the creation of system building (Finnimore 1989). System building changed the role to all players in the construction industry and forced architects to come up with new ideas on how to build sustainable housing. System housing gave architects access to the government since they had to come up with new ways to apply in building governmental housing programs (Finnimore 1989). System building was also supported by Welfare State Policies, which created a very high demand for housing for about thirty years. The disparity between the demand and supply of social housing is what led to the development of system building. There were extensive programs in relation to housing, in a country with limited building resources, and that created an environment in which alternative forms of construction were considered. System building supported using traditional building resources, and it employed unskilled workers from other industries while at the same time encouraging the manufacture of components offsite (Finnimore 1989). The Welfare State was the key investor in the housing industry after World War II. The massive investments of the welfare stimulated the growth of the housing market. In a sense, the welfare policy was a demand stabilizer and growth stimulator of the housing industry and economy as a whole (Finnimore 1989). The post-war conditions of the UK created an urgent and massive demand for housing, skilled labor, and raw materials. The high costs of construction caused the government to consider innovative and sustainable means through which they could meet the high demand for housing. New technologies of the building were created during that time while traditional methods of building were made more efficient by applying the latest techniques to them. In modern times, history seems to be repeating itself in the form of the contemporary housing crisis. There is a significant demand for social housing, but the supply is not meeting the demand. There is a shortage of skilled labor; there are high construction costs in addition to finding means through which carbon emissions can be reduced. The government and the private sector are considering applying the prefabricated building methods of the 20th Century to build more houses. However, negative public attitudes are still high. The same problems of poor quality of design, using inferior quality construction materials, and not considering the character of the tenants are bound to occur. The above information shows that the current housing crisis is not new in the UK. The UK housing market experiences highs and lows, it just so happens that the market is currently experiencing a bust. There are several impacts of the housing crisis, and they shall be expounded in the literature review section.

Socioeconomic Impact of Housing Crisis

Housing stability has been tied to various socioeconomic factors. In the same vein, it is expected that a housing crisis will also have socio-economic impacts. Dumas (2007) notes that there are three ways in which housing can affect an individual and their family: through the physical attributes of the house, through the way in which the attributes relate to the house, and through the neighborhood conditions, which relates to the quality and the safety of the neighborhood in which the house is located. These three ways in which housing can affect a family or individual has impacts that relate to health, education, crime, and antisocial behavior, household wealth, and work. Each one of those socioeconomic impacts shall be explored under different subheadings.

Housing and Health

There is a correlation between housing and health. The World Health Organization (2019) notes that the quality of housing has major implications for people’s health. As such, raising housing standards is a path to improving people’s health. According to Handy (2014), there are clear links between health and housing. People who live in poor quality houses tend to live much shorter lives. Additionally, their life expectancy and the quality of their later lives are drastically affected. Therefore, decent housing is fundamental to the health of individuals and their families. In the case of a housing crisis, people do not have decent housing since the types of houses that are available are either too expensive for them to afford, or they are of poor quality. As a result, their health tends to be affected in a negative manner, which has ripple effects on the healthcare system and government spending too. Handy (2014) observes that since low-quality housing leads to poor health outcomes, the government spends more on healthcare since the majority of those individuals will not have enough finances to help them seek proper healthcare services. The individuals will then rely on government hospitals to cater to their needs, which will increase the amount of money that the government spends on health care. At the same time, healthcare agencies are also affected since the number of unhealthy people in need of healthcare facilities increases. Howard and Restuccia (2018), note that “lack of affordable housing has been linked to the rise of asthma cases, the decline in the quality of life for older people, and increasing the issues of people with mental and physical disabilities.” Another research showed that proper quality housing improved the outcomes of individuals with cardiometabolic disease (Berkowitz, Hulberg, and Standish 2017). The reason for improved outcomes was that people who live in quality housing tend to have access to better food, medication, transportation, and they generally live in cleaner environments. Therefore, there is a correlation between proper housing and improved health outcomes. In relation to the housing crisis in the UK, is leading to an increase in respiratory illnesses. According to Campbell (2015), there has been” a 40% increase in the number of individuals admitted due to respiratory issues such as bronchitis, asthma, and emphysema. There has also been an increase in the number of pneumonia cases which costs the government at least £875 million in bed costs” (Campbell 2015). The increase in the rising respiratory issues can be traced back to low-quality housing that is colder than more quality housing. The low-quality housing can be traced back to the housing crisis in the UK, which has made affording quality housing very expensive for the average UK citizen. Moreover, the supply for housing does not meet the demand causing more people to continue living in lower quality housing. While it is difficult to address direct causality of poor health outcomes to poor housing or the housing crisis, the factors play a major role in affecting health outcomes. The main aspects relating to the housing crisis that affects health outcomes revolve around overcrowding, air quality, cold, experiences of homelessness, and dampness (Monk, Tang and Whitehead 2010). The aspects are related to the physical aspects of housing as well as the location of the housing. However, it is important to note that other actors such as poor diet, poverty, unemployment, lack of exercise, use of drugs and other factors also play a contributory role to the poor health outcomes. In the context of this paper, the aspects that have been concentrated upon relating to the physical aspects of housing. In and of itself, the housing crisis is not an issue that leads to negative health outcomes. It is the effects that arise as a result of the housing crisis that leads to adverse health outcomes. One of the results of the housing crisis is that it has led to overcrowding. Monk, Tang, and Whitehead (2010) note that “lack of affordable housing leads to overcrowding usually in a relatively small house, in temporary housing arrangements or in social housing.” Overcrowding increases the probability of infectious diseases such as cholera and typhoid as well as increasing the probability of domestic accidents. As noted above, another issue lies in the cold. The individuals who are most susceptible to the cold are old people and young infants (Monk, Tang and Whitehead 2010). The issue increases during the wintertime where there are increased cases of death by hypothermia that arise as a result of individuals not having access to proper housing. Monk, Tang, and Whitehead (2010) note that Britain tends to have “more than 40,000 deaths during winter than can be directly attributed to the lack of proper housing.” The reason is that the lower quality houses are less thermally efficient when compared to more quality and affordable housing. In low-quality houses, there is the absence of central heating, and that can be associated with an increase in winter deaths. Monk, Tang, and Whitehead (2010) find that individuals that live in poorly heated homes are more vulnerable during winter and that issue can be resolved by improving the availability of more quality housing. Improving the availability of more quality housing and ensuring that they are more thermal efficient would have great and positive effects on the health outcomes of many people. At the same time, it would lead to a decrease in the number of winter deaths that are attributed to housing issues. Therefore, the housing crisis is affecting the health outcomes of individuals because many people live in low-quality housing. Lanus (2009) also notes that poor housing is related to stress and mental health. The factors that were considered related to the physical size of the home, quality, size, design, and the availability of sound and heat insulation. It was found that people who live in lower quality houses were more inclined to be stressed and have negative mental health outcomes (Lanus 2009). The major issue lies not in the specific health problems but in the overall reduction of health quality for very many people.

Housing and Education

There is a correlation between housing and education. According to Lanus (2009), poor housing, and by extension, the housing crisis affects educational achievement or attainment. The research shows that there is an inverse relationship between quality housing and educational achievement. Harkness and Newman (2003) found that “when children and adolescents live in quality households, they are more likely to have more years of schooling, the chances of them attending high school are higher, and it also reduces the probability of them being welfare recipients.” Dumas (2007) notes that the key issue may not be the house itself but the neighborhood in which the house is located. Low-quality houses are located in neighborhoods that have high levels of poverty. Thus, neighborhood characteristics play a big role in determining the education outcomes of children and adolescents. Lanus (2009) also notes that low-quality housing leads to overcrowding, and children and adolescents who live in overcrowded homes and neighborhoods tend to miss school more as compared to others who live in more quality housing. As stated in the “Housing and health” section, overcrowding in houses leads to increased susceptibility to diseases such as typhoid and cholera and an increase in domestic accidents. As such, it means that part of the reason that some children will miss school more is that they experience higher rates of sickness. Moreover, lower quality housing, as well as overcrowded houses, often lack a suitable place for children and adolescents to study, which in turn affects their student achievement levels. Goux and Maurin (2003) carried out research in France that showed that one in five 15-year old that lives in a low-quality house were more likely to be held back during primary and secondary school. The study suggested that there exists a causal relationship between housing conditions and children and adolescents falling behind in school. As said above, one of the ways in which housing has an effect relates to the neighborhood in which the house is located. Lanus (2009) notes that the educational achievements of children are correlated with those of their neighbors. The problems lie in the concentration of poverty, which affects the ability of the children to learn while they are at home. Dumas (2007) carried out a study in which they sought to investigate the effects of housing arrangements on standardized test scores. The control group remained in the deplorable housing conditions while the sample group received different levels of housing assistance that was allotted to them through lottery. At the end of the study, Dumas (2007) found that standardized test scores were higher in the students that had received assistance. The test scores of the control group were significantly lower when compared to the sample group. The researchers surmised that housing conditions do have an effect on education, specifically standardized test scores. The housing crisis affects children’s prospects more due to residential moves. Lower wages and increased house prices may require a family to move to a different neighborhood of lower socioeconomic success, and that will have an effect on children’s educations. According to Roy, Maynard, and Weisss (2008), residential moves are a critical factor that will limit the education success of poor and minority children. Residential mobility inevitably means that the children will have to move to another school, and that will have adverse effects on young children. The move will be hard for the children but also for their classmates too. In some neighborhoods, the mobility rate may be close to 100 percent simply because the parents cannot afford housing within those specific neighborhoods. At the same time, mobility may also be high for teachers and administrators (Roy, Maynard, and Weisss, 2008). Some teachers will decide to apply for transfer or choose to resign because the environment is not conducive for them to teach. The teachers who choose to remain regardless of the challenges that they experience will have a big challenge because the teacher to student ration will be relatively high which will make it challenging to meet the educational needs of the children. Some teachers will choose to move because they cannot afford housing in a given area, and that will affect the educational prospects of the children.

The disadvantages are skewed towards children that come from low-income households. Children from low-income households tend to experience residential moves more than children who come from relatively financially stable families (Roy, Maynard, and Weisss, 2008). Due to residential mobility, children will fall behind their peers in terms of reading and mathematical proficiency. Furthermore, there is an achievement gap between children that move residences more than twice a year and those that are relatively stable. The relative instability caused by the housing crisis leads to a decline in academic performance. Roy, Maynard, and Weiss (2008) note that a school change in the final years of high school has a significant effect on math achievement. The effect is worse for children that experience cumulative move; basically, the more children move, the greater the degree of their academic impairment. “A child who moves three or more times between the ages of 4 and 7 is 19% less likely than his non-moving peers to graduate from high school” (Roy, Maynard, and Weisss, 2008). As such, excess mobility is considered a predictor of lower school success. Also, the researchers found that moving houses but staying in the same school also led to a drop in education success (Roy, Maynard, and Weisss, 2008). Haveman, Wolfe, and Spaulding (1991) carried out a study in which they predicted the probability that a child will graduate from high school based on the number of times that the child had moved. It was found that the moves have a higher impact when they occur early on in the child’s life. With zero location moves the probability of graduating high school is 88%; three location moves decrease the possibility of graduating down to 80% (Haveman, Wolfe, and Spaulding, 2008). However, the study found that if the move occurred between the ages of 12 and 15-years-old, the probability of graduating high school drops to 74% but if they take place between the ages of 4 and 7-years-old, then the odds of graduating reduces to 71% (Haveman, Wolfe, and Spaulding, 2008). The difference between zero moves and more than three moves is 17%, and any factor that causes a 17% drop in the odds of graduating requires serious attention from policymakers. Therefore, the literature shows that there is a causal relationship between housing issues and education. In the context of this research, it can be surmised that the housing crisis does have negative and detrimental effects on the education of children and adolescents.

Housing and Crime and Antisocial Behavior

Housing is seen as a contributory factor to crime and antisocial behavior. According to Monk, Tang, and Whitehead (2010), the evidence suggest that areas with high rates of crime are usually: Mixed and inner metropolitan areas that have poor rates of rented housing; non-family areas that have a mix of affluent homes with individuals from different occupations; the poorest areas usually in the city or the periphery of the city. A study carried out in South Africa found that “housing plays a role in influencing crime due to the existence of structural and socio-economic barriers that prevent upward mobility” (Meth 2017). Basically, it is levels of poverty within a neighborhood that determine the existence of crime within that specific neighborhood. In the housing crisis, housing is so expensive that individuals in the UK cannot afford to rent or buy a house. The alternative is for them to live in low-income areas where the quality of housing is very low and in which there is a high concentration of poverty. Due to the high levels of poverty, individuals tend to choose crime as a means to survive. That shows that in and of itself, it is not the housing crisis that is the issue. There are other systemic factors that must be taken into account. However, while direct causality may not be established between housing and levels of crime and antisocial behavior, an association or correlation can be drawn. The association or correlation drawn implies that housing is a factor that must be taken into account in relation to crime and antisocial behavior. The correlation between housing and crime has led to the idea of “designing away crime.” Coleman (1985) suggested that there is an influence on how housing and neighborhoods are designed and offender rates. Bad designs would relate to blocks of flats that have covered walkways between them and areas that are hidden below stairs or behind walls. Such design flaws inevitably encourage crime since there are many areas that are hidden. Newman (1972) suggested that housing should be designed in such a manner that it encourages natural surveillance and defensiveness. Properly designed spaces will lead to the reduction of crime since crimes of opportunity will be reduced. Crimes of opportunity refer to the idea that people are not planning to commit crimes, but when they get an opportunity, they will commit the crime. In the case of housing and neighborhood designs in which there are hidden walkways and dark corners, the probability of crimes of opportunity increases since individuals will surmise that they will not be seen. Lanus (2009) notes that at times, it is not the presence of crime that is an issue but the fear of crime. The fear of crime leads people to move out of a particular neighborhood, which leads to a cycle of decline that will lead to instability. Lanus (2009) notes that there are four outcomes that are influenced by the fear of crime. First, it will lead to increased incidences of crimes such as vandalism which lead to a decline in the value of the capital assets. Second, the crime or the fear of crime will deter prospective tenants as well as cause current tenants to leave, which leads to high vacancy rates and hard to let properties. Third, the crime level or the fear of crime will reduce the ability of agencies to attract investment to a given area which will contribute to the precipitous decline of the area. Fourth, repairing the damage that has been caused by crime leads to a lot of money and man-hours being wasted. To show the correlation between crime and housing, a study of two estates was carried out. One of the estates was refurbished, and the other was not refurbished. As expected of the study, crime rates were lower in the estate, which was refurbished, and they were significantly higher in the estate that was not refurbished (Lanus 2009). The crimes that were most common in the estate that was not refurbished were violent crimes against individual, burglary, theft, and public disturbances. “The costs of dealing with the crime were higher in the estate, which was not refurbished at £325 per annum while in the estate that was refurbished it was £79 per annum” (Lanus 2009). The research should not be misconstrued to mean that greater investment in housing will lead to a reduction in crime and antisocial behavior. It would be too simplistic to argue that crime is a function of buildings. The review simply argues that quality housing is a means through which crime levels can be deterred. In the context of the housing crisis, there is low-quality housing, which contributes to high levels of crime. It is not the housing crisis, which is the issue but the effects that arise as a result of the housing crisis. The housing crisis has led to the concentration of high levels of poverty, which has been connected to increased incidences of crime. Moreover, it has made some areas and neighborhoods less attractive to tenants, which have then contributed to the instability that is experienced in some neighborhoods. All the effects that have been felt as a result of the housing crisis show that there is a correlation between housing and crime and antisocial behavior.

Housing and Work

Housing has an effect on work. Housing can play a very significant role in helping people get into the labor market. According to Gibb et al. (2016), “Housing can act as a barrier to employment when it is located in areas with few employment opportunities.” Many of the people that have housing issues will most likely live in neighborhoods where there are very few employment opportunities. Moreover, the neighborhood in which the house is located will play a determining role in the availability of work. Gibb et al. (2016) note, “Neighborhoods can facilitate social networks that provide informal recruitment channels, enabling local people to find employment.” That shows that it is not only housing, which plays a role when it comes to work but the neighborhood in which the housing is located also plays a role. Changes in the labor and housing markets have put additional barriers to mobility. There is a shortage in social rented housing, so when people get tenure in that type of housing; they are unwilling to move because they do not want to risk leaving the security that they are experiencing. Moreover, there are very few affordable houses in the private rented sector that are made worse by the volatility of the labor market (Gibb et al. 2016). People are not willing to move houses even when they get a well-paying job because there is an innate fear that they will lose the job that they have and that will plunge them back into poverty. Therefore, people are willing to stay in social housing for as long as possible regardless of the job that they have. The issue is that the availability of social housing is very limited. Location of housing affects work in the sense that it affects the type of jobs that people will apply for. Some may argue that location should not be an issue given the fact that there is public transport. However, if for example, an individual has children, it will be very challenging for them to organize themselves to take care of the children while at the same time arranging their schedule around public transport. Due to that, some people will not apply for the jobs because they know that they are not in a position to make it to work every day (Dilldine, 2016). Even if one has higher wages, they are less inclined to apply for a job if they know they will depend on public transport. Moreover, the lack of housing or an unfavorable position of housing that one can afford has an indirect influence on work. Dilldine (2016) states, “housing location influences the ability to build a social network and access job information. Social networks can facilitate access to job opportunities that may otherwise have never existed.” The importance is that the housing will lead to the cultivation of social circles that will be beneficial for work. An issue arises because the majority of the people that are stricken by the housing crisis live in relative or abject poverty and their social circles are the same. Therefore, their social circles do not have the requisite connections to affect their work situation in a positive manner. The inadequate supply of affordable housing is a factor that affects work since people spend more on housing. According to Dilldine (2016), “an increasing number of households have become cost-burdened, meaning that they pay 50% or more of their monthly income on housing.” The fact that housing takes such a big portion of the money means that people are put in a position where they have to choose between various bills such as food, paying various bills, and paying rent. The extent of the financial struggle is exacerbated in the event of unforeseen financial need, such as a medical emergency. An unplanned financial need can affect an individual’s ability to pay rent, which further affects their housing situation. The housing situation affects people to the extent where if they have work, it will be affected. According to Desmond and Gershenson (2016), note that housing insecurity and employment insecurity form a codependent. An individual who is worried about their housing will feel stressed, and that will compound their challenges at every level. The issues that arise may continue to accumulate which may cause stress, anxiety, or even depression, which may then affect an individual’s ability to pay attention when they are at work which will affect their job performance. Moreover, the issue of housing can lead to job loss. Desmond and Gershenson (2016) note that individuals who are experiencing housing crises rarely have job protection. Such individuals rarely have vacations, sick day, or any form of unscheduled absences since that may lead to job loss. Furthermore, individuals may be exposed to abrupt evictions that may affect an individual’s ability to attend work, which may result in job loss. In such an instance, the person is torn between fighting for their home or going to work. Neither choice is helpful because by choosing one, they lose the other. According to Desmond and Gershenson (2016), workers who miss work due to housing are 11 to 22% more likely to lose their job. Therefore, housing plays a very important role in work security, and that is why the housing crisis must be addressed.

Housing and Household Wealth

Housing has an impact on household wealth. According to Mousina (2019), “housing is both a source of wealth but also a form of consumption.” There are some that own houses and others that “consume” housing through paying rent. That means that when changes in the housing sector occur, different people are affected in different ways. For example, when home prices increase investors, and homeowners who have no plans of expanding or upgrading are the ones that benefit the most. Conversely, individuals that pay rent or house owners that are planning to make changes to their house are affected in a negative manner. People who pay rent are affected negatively because higher home prices may translate into higher rents. Higher rents mean that households that are already struggling will have to spend more on rent or choose to move to slightly affordable housing. Slightly affordable housing may come in the form of moving to a smaller house within the same neighborhood or moving to a house of the same size in a different neighborhood. According to Roy, Maynard, and Weisss (2008), residential moves are a major manner in which lack of affordable housing manifests itself. The residential move is discombobulating to children because of the change in the environment, which affects their future prospects. If the majority of the population owned houses or were paying mortgages, then the majority of people would benefit from higher home prices. Mousina (2019) gives an example of Australia in which 2/3 households either own a home or are paying a mortgage, and that is why they benefit from high house prices. Moreover, the national atmosphere would have to be one that encourages investment in the real estate sector through factors like negative gearing, adjustments in capital gains tax, and overall favorable taxation for individuals that own houses. Unlike Australia, the UK is experiencing a housing crisis. Majority of people consume housing in the form of paying rent, and that means that when a housing crisis occurs, rent payers are affected because it leads to an increase in house rents. Peachey, Guibourg, and Stylianou (2018) note that the majority of people spend more than 30% of the salary in more than 65% of British postcode areas. It is advised that people should not spend more than 30% of their salary on rent, yet living in some areas requires that people spend more than 50% of their salary in rent. Olsen (2018) notes that in an area such as Camden people spend more than 61% of their salary on a one-bedroom house. More for one to be able to “afford” to rent a one-bedroom home, one needs to earn at least £51,200 (Peachey, Guibourg, and Stylianou, 2018). The housing crisis has exacerbated the issue, and young people in their early twenties are the ones that are most affected. Young people choose to continue living with their parents or choose to have a roommate with whom they can split the rent. Peachey, Guibourg, and Stylianou (2018) observe that there are many young people who have left home and rented their own houses only for them to return to live with their parents because the rent was unsustainably high. Therefore, young people looking to live on their own are disproportionately affected by the housing crisis. People are spending more on housing, and they have little to no savings. According to Pettinger (2014), an increase in house prices leads to lower savings because people will choose to invest more in housing through paying rent or buying homes. Many households have little to no saving because housing consumes a big portion of their incomes. The issue of savings becomes greater when the household has school-going children or infants. In the event of an unforeseen emergency such as a medical emergency, many individuals do not have savings to aid them during that challenging time. Moreover, wages are falling which forces households to spend more on housing while simultaneously reducing other costs such as food and medicine, Peachey, Guibourg, and Stylianou (2018) note that many young people between 20-30 choose to sacrifice saving so that they can be able to afford to rent a home. Some households have sacrificed not having a car and chosen to rely on public transport. Some have cut back on spending on things such as food, medical checkups, and relative luxuries such as entertainment so that they can pay rent. The continuing crisis has made the situation much worse for households, and it is expected to get worse before it can get better, more so with Brexit looming over the economy. Therefore, the housing crisis affects household wealth because choices have to be made between paying rent, saving, and other household spending.

Environmental Impact of Housing Crisis

The housing crisis has different environmental impacts caused by the crisis itself as well as the methods that would need to be employed to resolve the issue. The environmental impact of the housing crisis shall be explored under the green belt, climate change, water supply, flood risk, urban fringe, and use of agricultural land.

The Green Belt

The green belt is a policy for controlling urban growth. The main purpose of the green belt is to prevent urban encroachment by keeping land permanently open. The housing crisis has led some people to ask whether building on green belts will lead to solving the housing crisis. Green belts have five purposes, “to check the unrestricted sprawl of large built-up areas; to prevent neighboring towns from merging into one another; to assist in safeguarding the countryside from encroachments; to preserve the setting and special character of historic towns; and to assist in urban regeneration by encouraging the recycling of derelict and other urban land” (Entec, 2004). According to Scott (2017), the housing crisis has sparked a conversation about building on green belts, which is foreseen to help in solving the crisis. Some housebuilders and think tanks assert that building on green belts will be the best way of solving the crisis given the ambitious number of new homes that are needed each year. Conversely, there are those that believe that green belts are sacred because they aid in safeguarding the environment and have health benefits for towns and cities. The government has stated its commitment to retaining and maintaining the green belts, but it is becoming increasingly challenging as the housing crisis persists. Some argue that green belts are part of the problem because they control land supply. According to Han et al. (2017) the green belts and their restrictive policies may lead to a land appreciation that will benefit landowners and existing landlords which will place greater burdens on people that rent or seek to buy homes. Not being able to build on green belts has led to an increase is scarcity, which has supported the housing crisis because it leads to an increase in the prices of current houses. While the conclusions concerning building on green belts have some merits, they fail to account for the environmental impact. Building on green belts will lead to a reduction in the number of green belts in the country. Future generations will not enjoy the benefits of spending time on land that has not been touched by the urban landscape. Furthermore, considering building on green belts fails to consider the need for infrastructure and social amenities that will help in building stronger communities in the long term (Scott, 2017). The green belts hold a significant market and non-market value. If houses are built in the wrong green belt area, there will be an increase in costs such as longer commutes, congestion, dangerous levels of air pollution, and increased susceptibility to water pollution and flooding. The costs do not appear during the building stage, but they will be gradually felt as more houses are built and more people move into a given area. Moreover, the main aims of having a greenbelt such as prevention of encroachment are disregarded when houses are built on the patches of land. Therefore, the housing crisis has affected the greenbelts since it has led some to consider building on the sacrosanct spaces.

Water Supply

The housing crisis affects the water supply. Building sustainable communities is a big challenge for key water resources more so in the South East of England. According to Entec (2004), “the South East consumes more water per person than most other regions, but receives one of the lowest amounts of rainfall.” The consumption rates are expected to increase as more houses are built to meet the demand for housing. The issue is exacerbated because areas such as the South East depend on groundwater for up to 80% of its public water supply. Drier summers are expected as a result of climate change, and that will affect the water supply greatly. Massey (2018) notes that a large number of English homes face losing their water supply as a result of drought. The current infrastructure is not enough to cater for the population. Moreover, more than one-fifth of water is lost due to leaky pipes in faulty houses. As a result, the water usage per person has reduced by 10 liters per day. Pressly (2012) notes that even though water supply is an issue, water firms cannot refuse to supply water to new housing developments. Water companies are legally bound to provide water to new developments, even when there are sustainability issues. The issue of water sustainability presents an opportunity to come up with solutions. Hanak and Browne (2008) note that it is important to link housing growth to water supply. Simply put, if a particular area is experiencing issues of water sustainability, then authorizations for building more houses must be put on hold until the issue has been resolved. While putting authorization of building new houses on hold seems like a manner though which water sustainability can be addressed, it will most likely increase the housing crisis. A more apt solution would be to find a means through which water sustainability can be improved while addressing the housing crisis. A relatively straightforward but fiscally intensive solution would be to set up desalination plants in areas that experience the biggest water issues. Setting up desalination plants is a long-term solution and is one that should be explored. Additionally, increased metering and using more water-efficient appliances should be considered. On the other hand, the government should find means through which they can reduce water leakage, which is attributed to losing more than a fifth of water supply in England. Halving the water leakage will improve water sustainability since it will account for thousands of liters of water. The housing crisis will only be addressed through the building of more housing, and that will come with additional burdens to the water supply. According to Entec (2004), the increase in housing will lead to greater water demands, which will result in more unsustainable water abstractions unless more sustainable water resources are created. Moreover, climate change will affect water supply by reducing its availability. Also, since more people do not have access to proper housing, the socioeconomic effects stated in the above paragraphs are experienced to a greater degree. Individuals do not have access to a consistent water supply, which then affects their hygiene and sanitation. When hygiene and sanitation are compromised, the susceptibility to sickness and other medical maladies is increased. Children and old people are the ones that will be most affected by the issues of sanitation because their immune systems are relatively weaker. Without proper housing, people will not have access to a consistent water supply, and that will have detrimental issues for their long-term health.

Flood Risk

The government recognizes flooding as one of the most serious threats facing building in the UK. There are four types of flooding that affect housing in the UK. First, groundwater flooding. The Royal Geographical Society (2016) notes that groundwater flooding occurs when groundwater escapes from the ground due to the water table rising. Groundwater will flow from a high area to a low ground level. What makes groundwater flooding challenging is the fact that it takes a long time to dissipate because the water on the surface will take a long time to go back underground. When groundwater flooding occurs, it is usually self-inflicted or as a result of the planner not doing their due diligence since the area is usually prone to flooding. Groundwater flooding is relatively sporadic, and when it occurs, it takes a longer time to dissipate when compared to surface water flooding. Second, fluvial water flooding. Fluvial water flooding occurs when a river overflows due to a high and intense rainfall that causes the river banks to burst (Royal Geographical Society, 2016). Third, surface water flooding. Surface water flooding occurs when intense rainfall exceeds the drainage capacity of a given area (Royal Geographical Society, 2016). Surface water flooding tends to be highly destructive when it occurs. Currently, more than 3,000,000 properties are at risk of surface water flooding in the UK (Royal Geographical Society, 2016). A combination of intense rainfall and impermeable land cover leads to surface water flooding. The rain will fall, and since the water cannot infiltrate the ground fast enough, it will accumulate and lead to flooding. Surface water flooding can be avoided or mitigated through proper urban planning and the utilization of green spaces. Fourth, coastal flooding. Coastal flooding occurs when low lying areas are overcome by seawater (Royal Geographical Society, 2016). In the UK, coastal flooding may be caused by a rise in the sea level or storms surging. Coastal flooding has become a serious issue in the UK, which requires the use of coastal defense areas to reduce the effect of coastal flooding. The worst coastal flooding in the UK was recorded in 1953 when a 5-meter storm surge caused flooding that resulted in the death of 309 people (Royal Geographical Society, 2016). Coastal flooding can be addressed through building seawalls, building around natural defenses such as sand dunes, mangroves, and salt marshes, and/or mitigating climate change. Overall, flooding poses a great hazard depending on the type of flood, and the speed, velocity, and depth of water. A relatively recent flooding case occurred in 2016. Storms Desmond and Eva and led to the flooding of 16,000 homes (Humphreys, 2016). The advantage is that the flooding measures put in place protected more than 20,000 homes, which was mitigation rather than a solution. In January 2017, more storms happened in Scotland, which forced some residents to evacuate as well as leading to the collapse of some roads and key infrastructure (Humphreys, 2016). The threat of flooding is a looming specter that must be addressed if the housing crisis is going to be averted. As stated above, more than 3,000,000 properties are at risk of being flooded. New housing developments are prone to flooding with the possibility that flooding will occur being defined by the area which the house with the greatest probability of flooding occurring in flood plains. The current housing crisis, adds upon the issue because current social housing is not adequate enough to offer protection against flooding. Housing that is located along the River Thames is especially susceptible to flooding. The Royal Geographical Society (2016) notes that the Thames has over 20 main tributaries, the change in water level during Spring is 8 meters of 26 feet, there are 200 miles of protective walls some of which are hundreds of years old, and the Thames runs through 9 counties namely Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, Buckinghamshire, Berkshire, Surrey, Middlesex, Kent, and Essex. These areas are more prone to fluvial flooding, and it is matter than must be addressed when considering how to resolve the housing crisis. The housing crisis is not directly responsible for flooding, but foods have made some social houses increasing dilapidated, making them unfit for tenants.

Urban Fringe

Urban fringe is very important when considering settlement geography. Urban fringe is the area where the city meets the countryside; it is an area of transition from agricultural and rural usage of land to urban usage of land (Ahmad, Nusrath, and Shivamallu, 2014). While urban fringe is inevitable, it has positive and negative effects. According to Ukoje (2016), land located in the urban fringe is cheaper when compared to land that is located within urban dwellings. At the same time, individuals that have land in the urban fringe are getting more money from selling land when compared to their counterparts in rural areas. This is especially true when individuals sell the land within the fringe and use the money that they have acquired to buy more land in rural areas under the expectation that the fringe will expand to such areas. Entec (2004) notes that the effect of urban fringe has been neglected in the planning process. It is expected that urban fringes are going to be the areas that will lead to greater increases in housing, which means that a positive approach to the area is needed. Entec (2004) notes that the vision for the rural-urban fringe should be “attractive, accessible, diverse, and multi-functional. It serves the needs of both urban and rural communities, strengthens the links between town and country, and contributes fully towards sustainable development.” The housing crisis contributes to the growth of urban fringe because of the solutions to the crisis is to build houses on the urban fringe. Once the houses have been built on the urban fringe, the area ceases to be an urban fringe. The fringe will move inwards towards the rural areas. If the move continues, then rural areas shall be overrun by urbanization, and that will have diverse effects depending on the area. If the area has agricultural land, then the land will be used for housing (this point shall be explored in the preceding paragraph). If the area has an adequate supply of water, the sustainability of the water sources shall reduce because of an increase in population density. Therefore, while the housing crisis is not directly responsible for urban fringe, the manner in which it may be resolved will lead to greater rural-urban fringe.

Use of Agricultural Land

It goes without saying that agricultural land is very important, but the housing crisis is a threat to agricultural land because solving the issue may require building on agricultural land. Entec (2004) notes, “The presence of best and most versatile agricultural land (defined as land in grades 1, 2 and 3a of the Agricultural Land Classification), should be taken into account alongside other sustainability considerations (e.g. biodiversity; the quality and character of the landscape; its amenity value or heritage interest; accessibility to infrastructure, workforce and markets; maintaining viable communities; and the protection of natural resources, including soil quality) when determining planning applications.” The statement is meant to show that agricultural land must be protected at all costs no matter how attractive it may be to build on such land. Urban fringe is a threat to agricultural land because it is expected to grow. As stated, in the subtopic covering urban fringe, when houses are built on the urban fringe, the fringe will move towards rural areas, which is where the majority of the agricultural land is located. Policies may be set up that protect agricultural land, but building around them will also become an issue. For example, the area on which the land is located may have sufficient groundwater to meet the needs of the people that live there as well as meet the agricultural needs. If houses are built around that area, water sustainability may become an issue which will then have adverse effects on agricultural activities. Additionally, air pollution, water pollution, and pollution, in general, may increase, which will have a negative effect on agricultural activities. Where it is inevitable to build on agricultural land, poorer quality land should be used, and environmental effects should be minimized as much as possible. The housing crisis is causing people to consider building on agricultural land. Furthermore, if people are farmers and do not have adequate and quality housing, their level of productivity will decrease. The housing crisis is making people consider building on agricultural land, and that will become an issue in the long run.

Conclusion

The UK housing crisis has socioeconomic and environmental implications. In terms of socioeconomic implications, the crisis has impacts that relate to health, education, crime, and antisocial behavior, household wealth, and work. In terms of environmental implications, impacts relate to the Green Belt, water supply, flood risks, urban fringe, and the use of agricultural land to combat the crisis. The implications of the housing crisis cut across different social and environmental facets.

Chapter 5: Discussion

Introduction

This chapter will discuss the findings detailed in the literature review section. The information in the literature review section shows that the implications of the housing crisis are more than one may anticipate. Moreover, its effects seem to cut across different generations and if the crisis is not handle, many individuals will continue to suffer and the environment may continue to be affected negatively too.

Discussion

The research shows that the housing crisis in the UK has socio-economic and environmental implications. The background portion of the research showed that the housing crisis is not a recent phenomenon in the UK. The issue of housing has been cropping up intermittently over the last century guided by the overall worldwide issues. The issue of housing was felt during World War I and World War II, where many houses were destroyed. The destruction of the property forced the government to step in to fill in the housing gap through the construction of many houses. After World War II, there was a big demand for housing and the government stepped in and also sought the help of the private sector to come up with new methods of building that would aid in building many quality houses. That led to the formation of prefabrication methods of building houses, which, to some extent, form the foundation of the current housing crisis. The prefabricated methods did not pay attention to aesthetics or longevity of the houses, and after a few years or decades, many of those houses cannot be inhabited. Some of those houses form the basis of social housing, which is expected to be cheap, but given the state of the housing, it is not feasible for people to live in such dilapidated conditions. The demand for housing has been increasing, and the current supply does not meet the demand. The reduction in wages is a great contributory factor in the housing crisis because people cannot afford to live in the current houses. The housing market follows the laws of demand and supply. When supply is high, and demand is low, the prices of goods will be low. When demand is high, but supply is low, then the prices of the goods will be high. In the context of housing, the demand is very high, but the supply does not meet the demand, and that forms the core of the housing crisis. The housing crisis has led to many socio-economic impacts. It is important to note that the research showed that there are more socioeconomic impacts of the housing crisis than there are environmental impacts. Moreover, while the socio-economic impacts were handled under different subtopics, they were all linked because the primary predictor of them occurring was as a result of poor housing. The key themes identified in relation to socioeconomic impacts were: health, education, crime, and antisocial behavior, household wealth, and work. The research was clear that there is a direct correlation between housing and health. The greater the quality of housing, the better the individual(s) health, and the lower the quality of housing, the more the individual(s) is compromised. In the housing crisis, many people cannot afford decent and quality housing because it is too expensive for them to afford, and the ones that they can afford are of dubious quality. It was interesting to note that the lesser the quality of housing in the country, the more the government has to spend on healthcare. The people who cannot access quality housing will seek treatment in government hospitals, and the medical burden will be on the government. Thus, the government benefits from ensuring that people have access to quality housing because the government will save more from healthcare costs. The research showed that low-quality housing leads to more cases of asthma, cardiometabolic diseases, and respiratory diseases. Lack of quality housing was found to increase asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema cases by more than 40% (Campbell, 2015). The increases in respiratory diseases occur because lower quality housing tends to be colder than more quality housing. In and of itself, the housing crisis is not the direct cause of the medical and health issues, but the cascade of events that occur as a result of the housing. Poor housing will force more people to live together, which will lead to overcrowding, which will increase the probability that infectious diseases will occur (Monk, Tang, and Whitehead, 2010). Overcrowding leads to poor sanitation, which may lead to cholera and typhoid, costs which will transfer over to the government. The issue of health and housing worsens in the wintertime because was found that more than 40,000 deaths during winter could be attributed to a lack of proper housing (Monk, Tang, and Whitehead, 2010). Poor housing is not as thermally efficient as quality houses. The high number of deaths should be worrying to the government because it is its responsibility to take care of the people. Children and older people are the ones that are most susceptible to the vagaries that occur as a result of low-quality houses because of relatively weaker immune systems when compared to adolescents and adults. The impact of housing on education was very surprising. It was expected that housing would have an adverse effect on one education, but the degree of effect was underestimated. The research showed that there is a direct relationship between quality housing and education. When children and adolescents live in relatively quality households, they are more likely to spend more years in school when compared to those that live in relatively poor households (Harkness and Newman, 2003). The research did not expound on what is meant by the term “quality household” or “poor household.” However, one can surmise that a quality household may be one where the child does not have to worry about things such as proper sanitation, heating, and other things that should be considered household staples. The more surprising was that there is a relationship between housing and the probability that an adolescent will finish high school. To set the context, when children/adolescents live in families that cannot afford proper housing, that means that they come from relatively poor backgrounds. Due to that, the probability that the family will move houses and/or neighborhoods is very high because the parents will seek a place where they can afford to pay the rent. The research found that a child who moves is 19% more likely not to graduate high school. The more the child experiences moving, the higher the probability that they will not clear high school. When the child experiences zero moves, the likelihood of graduating from secondary school is 88%; moving more than 3 times drops the probability of graduating to 80%; moving 3 times between 4 and 7-years old reduces the odds of graduation to 71%; moving 3 times between 12 and 15-years-old decreases the probability of graduating to 71% ((Haveman, Wolfe, and Spaulding, 2008). Given that education is a fundamental right, the government cannot look aside when the housing crisis leads to a 17% decrease in the odds that adolescents will not graduate from secondary school.

In terms of crime and antisocial behavior, housing is seen as a contributory factor to crimes and antisocial behavior. The evidence showed that areas with high crime rates are usually the poorest areas at the periphery of the city, areas with poor rates of renting, and affluent areas with individuals from different occupations. In relation to the housing crisis, the majority of individuals can only afford to live in the “poor areas” and that coms with structural and socio-economic barriers that limit their upward mobility. Due to that, individuals are convinced that the best thing that they can do is to turn to crimes. Residential mobility means that adolescents will be out of schools. Given that they are not attending school, they may choose to turn to crime because they are bored, or because they want to fit into the new social group that they have identified in the new neighborhood. The levels of poverty within the neighborhood are a very big determinant of crime taking place, and the housing crisis has pushed people to the “poor areas” because those are the only areas where they can afford to live. It was interesting to note that the issue is cyclical in the sense that it is not an actual crime that increases crime, but the fear of crime. People will become afraid of crime, and that will lead to them moving out of the neighborhood, which will lead to a cycle of decline that will eventually lead to crime (Lanus, 2009). Moving out increases crime which decreases the value of the property, prospective tenants will not move into an area, without prospective tenants’ investors will not invest and finally, it takes a lot of money to repair the property that has been damaged as a result of the crime. It is a cycle, that will continue until adequate and quality housing is provided. Housing has an influence on work and household wealth. The neighborhood in which one lives can act as a barrier or a stepping stone for work as well as household wealth. The affordable, low-quality housing that many people can afford is located in neighborhoods that have very few employment opportunities, and that makes it challenging for them to get work. Moreover, the area in which one lives can influence the jobs for which they apply. An individual will get a very good job, but it may be very far from their home and the thought of commuting day in and day out will not be pleasant more so if the commute will consume a significant portion of the salary. Additionally, when people get tenure in social housing, they are unwilling to move because there are very few affordable houses in the private rented sector. Also, housing will affect work due to the social group. If the social group in the neighborhood is made up of people that are out of work, then it is very rare that one will be aware of work opportunities and that will reinforce their situation. The research showed that when people have housing issues, it may affect their work. When one is constantly worried about whether they will be able to afford rent and other house amenities, they will become stressed, and that will affect their work, which may lead to them being fired, which will further affect their housing prospects. Household wealth is also severely affected by housing. The research showed that people are spending more than 30% of their salary on housing with some areas requiring up to 60% of salary. Such households do not have savings, and if a serious emergency like a sick child occurs, then they do not have the finances they may need to solve the issues. Young adults in their early and mid-twenties are the ones that are most affected. They have a desire to live alone, but they cannot afford to live alone because of high rents. Many of them move out and return back to live with their parents, and some of them decide not to move out at all. The housing crisis is affecting people’s ability to get work and their ability to build up household wealth. The environmental impact of the housing crisis was lower than was anticipated. It was expected that the environmental impact would be very large, but the impacts were relatively weak when compared to the socio-economic impact, which encompassed many things. The research showed that the environmental impact of the housing crisis was not direct and that some impacts would be felt when the government tries to remedy the situation. A key impact revolves around the green belt. The green belt is basically a policy for controlling urban growth by checking the unrestricted sprawl of large built-up areas. The housing crisis has caused some people to consider building on green belts. Those that advocate for building on green belts argue that green belts are part of the housing problem because they control land supply through the use of restrictive policies. Looking at the policies, they are relatively restrictive in the sense that they require urban planners and builders to come up with innovative ideas that will build the houses while maintaining the green belts. On the other hand, there are people that believe the green belts are sacrosanct and should be preserved at all costs. It is clear that for the housing crisis to be solved, it will require building on some green belts. The primary issue will be choosing the green belts on which to build as well as mitigating the environmental impact of building on the green belt. The issue of water supply also arises in the context of the housing crisis. The South East of England seems to be the area that is most affected, given that it consumes more water person than other regions but receives one of the lowest rainfalls (Entec, 2004). The issue of water sustainability is one that must be addressed if the housing crisis is going to be solved. The more houses are built, the greater the stress that is placed on water supplies because the level of current water infrastructure is not enough to cater to the needs of every individual. The research also showed that more than a fifth of water is lost due to leaky pipes, and that contributes to the overall water sustainability issue (Massey, 2018). The housing crisis can be solved, but if the water issue is not addressed, then it will be all for naught. The government should find ways of reducing leakages in pipes, and it should also consider building desalination plants in areas where housing is expected to increase. There is enough water for everyone on the planet Earth; the issue is that the majority of it is salty water. Desalination plants would not only solve the water issue in the UK but if other countries do it too, then it will solve their water problems too. Lack of proper housing affects people’s access to water supply, and that affects their long-term health, which will then increase the burden on healthcare. Therefore, the issue of water sustainability is one that must be addressed.

Flood risk, urban fringe, and use of agricultural land are other environmental impacts of the housing crisis. In relation to flood risk, there are four types of flooding that can occur, and they are groundwater flooding, fluvial water flooding, surface water flooding, and coastal flooding. There are many areas that are prone to flooding, and more houses will also be built on areas that are prone to flooding. Flooding is a major issue given that it will have adverse effects on health, education, and work. If people do not have adequate housing when a flood occurs, they will be exposed to the water, and that may lead to respiratory illnesses, cholera, typhoid, and even death. If it is children and/adolescents who have been exposed to the flooding, they will not be able to attend school, and their parents will not be able to go to work. Thus, flooding is a serious issue that must be addressed when building more houses to address the housing crisis. In relation to urban fringe, the housing crisis may push urban fringe towards rural areas. Urban fringe occurs where a city meets the countryside and is simply an area of transitioning from agricultural and rural usage of land to urban usage of land (Ahmad, Nusrath, and Shivamallu, 2014). Land on the rural-urban fringe is cheaper, and that makes it more attractive to builders. If houses are built on the urban fringe, the urban fringe will move more towards rural areas, and that may affect agricultural land. It goes without saying that agricultural land must be preserved at all costs. The housing crisis affects agricultural land because there are some that are considering building on agricultural land. Building on agricultural land may be relatively inevitable, but the more quality land should be preserved for agricultural purposes. Additionally, building on agricultural land will affect water sustainability because population density will have increased, and it may also lead to an increase in air pollution and compromise soil fertility. The above factors must be considered when drafting policies that may allow for building on agricultural land.

Conclusion

The socioeconomic and environmental implication of the UK crisis must not be explored in isolation but considered together. Considering the implications in isolation would lead one to assume that the crisis is not that much of an issue. However, looking at all the implications and considering them as one whole shows that if the crisis is not averted the implications and effects will continue to accelerate to an extent where it will be very challenging to mitigate its effects.

Chapter 6: Conclusion

The housing crisis in the UK is apparent and is being caused by big demand for housing and not enough supply. The reduction in wages is making it challenging for people to afford houses. The housing crisis has far-reaching socio-economic impacts. People cannot afford proper housing, and that affects their health because the houses that they can afford are of poor-quality. Living in poor-quality housing increases incidences of respiratory illnesses, cholera, typhoid, and during winter, it leads to the death of more than 40,000 people. In terms of education, children and/or adolescents who live in poor housing are less likely to perform well in school. They do not have a place to study when they are at home because they most likely live in overcrowded homes, and residential mobility interferes with their learning. As a result, the probability of graduating from secondary school drops as low as 71% when compared to children that have quality and stable residences. The incidences of crime and anti-social behavior increase in light of the housing crisis. Moreover, the probability of gaining work is low, and building household wealth is challenging because a significant portion of revenue is spent on housing. In terms of environmental impact, the housing crisis has effects on the green belt, water sustainability, flooding, urban fringe, and building on agricultural land. The housing crisis is not only about housing but has far-reaching consequences that affect people’s socio-economic status as well as affects the environment. The research had a few limitations. First, it was not primary research. It focused on reviewing materials concerning the housing crisis and its various impacts. While secondary research was more than enough to meet the aims and purposes of this report, primary research may have led to collecting data that would have allowed for a quantitative research methodology. Second, the research focused on the socio-economic and environmental impact only. Future research can focus on other facets, such as political or technological impacts. Additionally, it was discovered that the socio-economic impacts on the housing crisis were too broad to be covered in this paper. Future research can focus solely on the socio-economic impact. The housing crisis has far-reaching consequences and impacts. Some of the impacts affect children, adolescents, and young adults who are the future of the country. Given the extent of the impacts, the government must remedy the housing crisis as fast as it can to ensure that some of the impacts are not lifelong.

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