Energy Efficiency in Building Design

Chapter 1

Introduction

The entire development and civilization of the human generation has been inherently dependent on a significant component, energy. In basic physics it is defined as the capacity to do work and consist of quantitative property that must be transferred into an object in order to perform work or to heat the object (Gregersen, 2020). Industrialization, construction and development of infrastructure, transport mechanisms, agricultural equipments, the internet, business, residential homes and literally all aspects of the human indulgence is reliant to energy of some kind making it particularly significant to human survival. The use and cost of energy affects each individual and as a result of its constant and insatiable need, many issues have been developed from the use of energy including: greenhouse gas emissions, acid rain, climate change, dependency on depleting supplies of fossil fuels, especially from politically unstable regions of the world (Gray, 2017). While most are negative and basically highlight global problems that require urgent solutions, efforts to be able to rectify these as well as enhance effective production and conservation of energy have been taken up across the world especially aimed towards enhancing sustainability. Individual, businesses, companies, the government and almost all social, economic and political institutions across the globeare taking up the initiative of ensuring energy efficient processes to enhance energy conservation and sustainability (Kagome, 2016). Among these industries and one that includes the focus for this dissertation, is the construction industry which indulges in developing energy efficient designs as a way of conserving energy. This research endeavors to evaluate the various aspects and elements of energy efficiency in the design and construction of residential and commercial buildings as well as highlight the designs with the highest consumer preferences as an aid to construction professionals towards further ensuring energy conservation and sustainability.

Background of the Study

The world is currently facing an energy crisis that grows more concerning by the day, concerns ofgreenhouse gas emissions, acid rain, and climate change not withstanding dependency on depleting supplies of fossil fuels given the reports by Vidal (2005); Korpela (2006); Sorell et al. (2009) and Hook et al. (2014) all of which emphasize a possibility for depletion of the global oil wells in 50 years time. However the response to these global issues have been significant with various nations even enacting policies and laws surrounding environmental and energy conservation through adoption of sustainability strategies by companies, organizations, institutions as well as individuals. One such industry which is not only obliged to embrace energy efficiency in its processes and products but also benefits significantly in terms of energy conservation and cost efficiency due to the adoption of energy efficient designs and process is the construction industry. According to Bozic and Kovacevic (2011)Buildings are responsible for 40% of energy consumption and 36% of carbon emissions making them significantly harmful to the environment in general. As such to be able to achieve the European Union Climate and Energy objectives aiming for a 20% reduction of carbon and harmful gas emissions as well as a 20% energy conservation, the manipulation and control of energy performance of buildings is a key component. This has mostly been taken up by contractors and construction companies through the development and construction of energy efficient building designs that enhance significant conservation and maximum utilization of energy. According to Hanania et al. (2015) Energy efficient building design involves constructing or upgrading buildings that are able to get the most work out of the energy that is supplied to them by taking steps to reduce energy loss such as decreasing the loss of heat through the envelope. They further point out that having Energy efficient homes, whether they are renovated to be more efficient or are built with energy efficiency in mind, pose a significant number of benefits including: Limited expenses due to energy efficiency as well as a more comfortable and friendly living and working environment among others.

Bozic and Kovacevic (2011) emphasizes that the in cooperation of renewable energy, sustainable green designs and an overall energy efficiencyinto a building is the current trend in construction in the recent years and as such professionals who design and engage in construction with this in mind play a significant role in reducing energy consumption and achieving sustainable energy structure for our society. In addition due to the need for individuals including customers and developers to participate in environmental sustainability and conservation of energy along with significantly minimizing the construction and maintenance cost of their properties, consumers and clients are more attracted to energy efficient building designs and professionals with the capacity to deliver such buildings. This study specifically focuses on the consumer preferences with regards to the different energy efficiency techniques and designs and construction.

Problem Statement

Given the increasing intensity of the environmental issues such as climate change, pollution and continued reliance of depleting energy sources that are depleting the globe of its natural energy sources, the conservation of energy and use of sustainable sources and processes are significantly taking center stage in the global priority concerns. Buildings alone impact up to 40% of the total world carbon emission making it a significant area to impacting energy efficiency and conservation. As a result of this, different technique for energy conservation and efficient use by buildings in terms of designs and renovations have been developed and are currently being applied by construction professionals to enhance energy conservation and sustainability. Nationwide Constructions (2017) highlights among such construction techniques for building energy efficient structure to include: LED lighting, Day lighting, Insulated Concrete form, HVAC options, and plumbing concerns, employing a whole house systems approach, Ultra efficient homes as well as advanced house framing and a wide variety of many others. Given the wide range of techniques as well as the complexities of design work and at the same time considering consumer desires and preferences, this study sets out to evaluate the taste and preferences of consumers with regards to energy efficiency techniques in construction so as to impact a general layout of acceptable and preferred designs for residential as well as commercial buildings.

Aims and Objectives

Given the extended influence of greenhouse gases to the environment as well as the progressive depletion of non renewable energy sources within the globe,and in consideration that buildings contribute significantly to these issues, retrofitting old buildings with energy efficient options as well as designing energy efficient buildings for construction is quite critical in being able to eventually alleviate the concerns in the near future and ensure energy conservation and sustainability. Development of energy efficient designs is the current most adopted trend in the construction industry and contributes significantly towards environmental and energy conservation leading to cutting down of costs and development of more comfortable and efficient buildings. As such, constriction companies and investors are increasingly adopting energy efficiency techniques in their design in an attempt to limit costs and contribute towards environmental conservation. However despite the desire for customers and clients to effectively develop and enjoy the maximum benefits of energy efficient houses, a majority of them are not aware or the different energy efficient design techniques and as such do not effectively in cooperate them in line with their personal desires as well as space and resources available. This study therefore aims to evaluate the awareness and as such, preference of customers, with regards to energy efficiency techniques in construction

Research Objectives

To be able to realize this aim, the study topic was divided into specific objectives to be studied including:

To evaluate the different energy efficiency techniques available and acceptable in design and construction

To evaluate consumer preference with regards to different elements of impacting energy efficiency in design and construction

To highlight the most popular energy efficiency design for application based on consumer preferences

To propose the best and most effective energy efficiency design for application in commercial and residential buildings

Research Questions

What are the different energy efficiency techniques available and acceptable for adoption in design and construction?

What is the consumer preference with regards to different elements of impacting energy efficiency in design and construction?

What is the most popular energy efficiency design for application based on consumer preferences?

What is best and most effective energy efficiency design for application in commercial and residential buildings

Rationale of the Study

Scholars, press websites as well as national and international leadership all across the globe have expressed concerns with regards to conservation of the environment highlighting different measures and techniques with which the global environmental and energy concerns can be addressed by everyone, whether organizations, institutions or individuals. Within the construction industry, this involves adoption and development of energy efficient buildings as well as retrofitting old buildings with energy efficient components and renovations. While a wide range of techniques and methodologies for developing energy efficient designs exist and are in use, Marquez (2015) and Dadzie et al. (2018) point out that the lack of effective awareness by the clients and customers with regards to the different energy efficiency design and development techniques, is among the major barrier to the global adoption of energy efficiency measures for existing buildings as well as in design of new buildings. As a result, consolidating consumer and client desires in the construction with energy efficiency techniques which they may not be aware of, provides an immediate challenge to construction professionals. This study begins to explain the various techniques that are preferred by the client and customers and that construction professionals will find significant and insightful in the design and retrofitting efforts towards environmental conservation and sustainability.

Chapter 2

Literature Review

Introduction

This chapter involves an evaluation of the available literature on energy efficiency in construction industry analyzing the different techniques currently applied by construction professionals as well as highlighting the various techniques that are most effective and easy to design and apply.

Energy Efficiency in Buildings

Azizova (2015) describes energy efficiency as the utilization of a less amount of energy towards a process or activity to provide the same services. Increasing energy efficiency significantly lower fuel usage and cost, consequently impacting lower green house emissions and help prevent climate change. Building design directly affects the energy performance of the building and as such, emphasis on energy Conservation has to be considered from the design stage and controlled throughout the life cycle (Design, Construction, Operate and Maintenance) of the building project (Panackal and Kumar, 2016). According to Oke, Aigbavbao and Semenya (2017), a wide number of ways exist with which the energy efficiency of new and existing buildings can be improved, this include:

Retrofitting or replacing energy-inefficient technologies

Developing controls and systems to increase efficiency beyond that available from individual technologies

Improving the operation and maintenance of transportation, buildings, and industrial equipment,

Auditing energy use and providing recommendations on more efficient technologies and practice

Educating people to be more energy efficient

An integrated approach to building design however involves judicious use and application of five main principles including:

Bio climatic and solar passive architectural principles

Use of energy efficient systems and equipments

Adoption of an efficient waste and water management practices

Use of renewable sources of energy to the extent economically feasible

According to Bozic and Kovacevic (2011) the principles enables designers to be able to develop energy efficiency houses through a combination of various elements including: Bioclimatic architecture which involves employing the manipulation of shapes and orientation of a building in order to maximize on solar utilization for energy efficiency of buildings, engaging insulation properties to manage heat gain and loss of a building as well as impacting high performance controlled ventilation. Further Panackal and Kumar (2016) highlights six important aspects of architectural planning which will affect thermal and energy performance of buildings to include: Site selection, Layout, Shaping, Spacing, orientation and mutual relationship. Based on the highlighted principles and aspects, energy efficient building designs are guided by four main techniques which will make up the bulk of the chapter. These include: Orientation, Ventilation, insulation and lighting.

Orientation

Orientation refers to the positioning of a building in relation to seasonal variations in the sun’s path as well as prevailing wind patterns. Gromicko and Gromicko (2019) points out that it is the practice of aligning a building so as to maximize on the aspects of its surroundings such as the sun path, capturing scenic views, wind direction for ventilation, street appeal, drainage consideration and others. With consideration to maximization of conservation and utilization of available sunlight and heat and therefore saving on fuel cost to provide energy and lighting, orientation proves to be a significant technique to enhance the energy efficiency of a building. Good orientation, combined with other energy efficiency features and Techniques, can reduce or even eliminate the need for auxiliary heating and cooling, resulting in lower energy bills, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and improved comfort (McGee, Reardon and Clarke, 2013). It enables development of designs that maximize the site potential for passive heating and passive cooling as well as adjusting the focus on each to suit the buildings environment and ensure continued occupier comfort. Orientation and design of buildings to be able to capitalize on free solar energy and sunlight significantly impact electric energy consumption for light during the day. Developing building designs with openings oriented towards the east-west direction enables maximum usage of sunlight during the day and as such impact energy efficiency (Bean, 2012). However this technique may not be straight forward due to the detrimental effects of heat for which the building occupants will not derive any comfort from, as such while openings may be used in the east-west direction, effective orientation in the North-South direction as depicted in Figure 1 significantly takes advantage of the warmth and light of the Sun to increase the home's appeal and marketability as well as increase indoor comfort and reduce energy bills.

Insulation

Consideration of insulation in housing design impacts the houses properties and as such subsequently its energy consumption efficiency. Insulation involves utilization of materials within a building to regulate certain properties including heat, fire, impact and sound. In energy conservation and efficiency, thermal insulation is of most concern and enables the control of a buildings heat absorption and release. According to Wilson (2019), Insulation products are designed to frustrate the transfer of different heat types including, conduction, Radiation and convention across a material itself. A wide range of insulation materials and methods are included as means of reducing the transmission of thermal energy through walls, ceilings, and floors, these helps keep heated interior space warmer in the winter and air-conditioned spaces cooler in the summer. Reducing the transmission of thermal energy not only makes spaces more comfortable, but it is also essential to controlling energy costs by limiting the use of electric energy or any other form managing room temperature (Rodriguez, 2019). While all building materials have an inherent insulating property, usually measured on a scale known as R-value, Rodrigiez (2019) points out that additional materials are integrated into the building design and construction specifically to add insulating value to the walls, floors, and ceilings thereby including insulation as a very key technique in the design and development of energy efficient housing. While a wide range of insulation materials and methods have been used and abandoned overtime for much better and modernized ones that are more effective, the type of insulation selected by a client or construction professional is inherently dependent on the climate of the site and the R-Value required. Some of these materials and processes for thermal insulation available for adoption and use within the industry currently as highlighted by Anupoju (2016) include: Slab or block insulation, Blanket insulation, Loose fill insulation, Bat insulating materials, Insulating boards, Reflective sheet materials, Lightweight materials, Liquid form, concrete block insulation and structural insulated panels (SIPs)

Chapter 3

Methodology Introduction and Objective

According to Ochsner, Hug and Daniel (2012), the purpose of a research study, especially one that takes into account primary study is to enable the development of new knowledge as well as introduce new perspectives of thinking and reflecting on issues. Research methodology includes the description of the different methods to be utilized in the conduction of the actual study process in order to be able to derive inferable findings Kumar (2005). Based on the content analysis of literature by different authors presented in the previous chapter, this chapter contain a discussion of the research design and philosophy as well as the area of the study, population of the study and sampling techniques adopted towards the realization of the research objectives which helped to answer the research aim. The objectives include;

To evaluate the different energy efficiency techniques available and acceptable in design and construction

To evaluate consumer preference with regards to different elements of impacting energy efficiency in design and construction

To highlight the most popular energy efficiency design for application based on consumer preferences

Research Design

The application of science in the performance of various processes and activities concerned with a research study informs the basis of research methodology as highlighted by Kothari (2004). A research design on the other hand dictates the direction of the actual study as well as the manner by which the research is conducted, According to Saunders et al. (2009) and Remenyi et al. (2003) a suitable research design needs to be selected based on research questions and objectives, existing knowledge on the subject area to be researched, the amount of resources, time available as well as the philosophical leanings of the researcher. The research design in addition also dictates the types of strategies that a researcher can adopt for use in a study, some of which include survey, case study, experiment, action research, ethnography, archival research grounded theory, cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies and participative enquiry (Collis and Hussey, 2009; Saunders et al., 2009).

For this study however, guided by the above principles the researcher adopted a cross sectional, mono method survey as the research design and use of closed ended questionnaires and informal interviews. Griffiths, (2009) points out that the qualitative research design involves detailed exploration and analysis of particular themes and concerns within a topic. Further he highlights that that qualitative approaches are particularly useful when the topic of research is complex, novel or under-researched as it leaves the results open to the possibility of unexpected findings, rather than predicting an expected outcome as is often the case for quantitative research.

Philosophical paradigm

Based on the provision of the Research Onion Diagram (Saunders et al., 2007) as shown in Figure 2, this study will adopt a qualitative and inductive research design, premised on an interpretivist philosophy that treats the world as a conglomeration of social constructions and meanings in human engagements and lived experiences (Daymon & Holloway, 2002; Gomm, 2008). The interpretivist paradigm works in dichotomy with the positivist model, which views the world as an embodiment of clarity, unambiguity, and verifiable reality that can be studied only with total objectivity (Cavana et al., 2001). This study combines the rationalist and empiricist approaches and encapsulates concepts, theories, frameworks, and case studies in explicating the different research concerns, including objectives, questions, phenomena, and behaviours (Abend, 2008; Swanson, 2013: Weick, 2014).

Research Methods

Research methods describe the methods that will be involved in the data collection process of the actual field study. The research will involve a primary data collection method which involves the use of questionnaires and informal interviews. The questionnaires are semi structured and followed up by informal interviews to further highlight and enhance the respondents’ insights regarding their individual knowledge and preferences when it comes to techniques for enhancing building energy efficiency.

Questionnaires

According to Phillips and Stawarski, (2008), Questionnaires are efficient due to their ability to capture not only an individual’s opinion, but also their attitudes and beliefs. In addition, they are flexible and easy to fill up in a short time. The questionnaires used contain detailed questions mostly requiring either a Yes or No answer, and in specific limited instances offer ranking scale and/or choices that respondents can easily pick for their response as well as a few open-ended questions for clarification of deep insight points.

Target Population

Gobo (2011) defines population as a group of people, subjects, objects and/or item that impact an element of the study being taken up and as such, are of interest to the research process. With regards to the aim of the research and considering the objectives and the nature of the information needed, the research will specifically focus on estate developers including private developers and employees in real estate, development, consultancy and construction companies.

Sampling

Sampling is the parameter that enables researchers to select a suitable group of individuals or items from the population for data collection and analysis, consequently as such, influencing the overall research results. The most basic sampling methods entail either probability or random sampling, which gives equal opportunity for selection to the entire sample population; as opposed to non-probability or non-random sampling, which requires a specific rationale for the inclusion or exclusion of sample groups of a population. While qualitative methods typically depend upon probability samples that permit confident generalization from the sample to a larger population, the ideas behind a specific sampling approach vary significantly and reflect the research objectives and questions that direct the study (Palinkas, et al. 2015). Knowledge of the range of one’s population and its composition is integral in the determination of whether probability sampling can be implemented (Blaikie, 2010).

This study employed the use of the Opportunity probability sampling technique given the scarcity and inaccessibility of the study population. The researcher used referrals from the key contacts to assemble a group of 15 key informants. The sample was also carefully selected from top developers and companies across the country to enhance effectively accurate information of consumer preferences.

Data Analysis

Thematic analysis will be the main tool for analysis for the primary data collected through the questionnaires issued to respondents. According to Braun and Clarke (2006), thematic analysis is a qualitative research method of analysis that takes into account the identification, analyzing and reporting of patterns, themes, and connections available within raw data. Through the use of the data collected through a wide variety of different research methods such as interviews and/or questionnaires as applied in this research study, accurate and replicable inferences can be made from the analysis of the various patterns and themes to further explore various energy efficiency design techniques consumers prefer in the construction of energy efficient and comfortable housing.

Ethical Considerations

Very little potential risks are envisioned as far as safety and dignity of participants is preserved. The research involves the collection of primary data that involves human interaction and the use of humans as the major information source, ethical considerations in terms of relevant courtesy to be afforded the various individuals while collecting this information as outlined by British Psychological Association (2013) is therefore a major concern. To avoid ethical issue therefore the researcher will secure an advanced permit from a company or organization to interview any of their employees also the study will focus on interviewing only willing participants and further keeping their names and identity anonymous so as to enhance their privacy.

References

Azizova, B., 2015. Energy Efficiency is the Main Objectives in Construction and Reconstruction. Journal of Architectural Engineering Technology, 04(02).

Dadzie, J., Runeson, G., Ding, G. and Bondinuba, F., 2018. Barriers to Adoption of Sustainable Technologies for Energy-Efficient Building Upgrade—Semi-Structured Interviews. Buildings, 8(4), p.57.

Höök, M., Davidsson, S., Johansson, S. and Tang, X., 2014. Decline and depletion rates of oil production: a comprehensive investigation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 372(2006), p.20120448.

Oke, A., Aigbavboa, C. and Semenya, K., 2017. Energy Savings and Sustainable Construction: Examining the Advantages of Nanotechnology. Energy Procedia, 142, pp.3839-3843.