Dyslexia and Literacy in Education

CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Literacy is an aspect of life especially in contemporary society that is driven by media and technology (Ade-Ojo, 2012). Furthermore, successful learning requires effective writing and reading skills to enhance literacy and enable people to properly to engage in activities of daily lives. Unfortunately, students with dyslexia tend to have difficulty in adopting these skills despite having effective schooling and sound intellectual capability. In fact, Ahsa et al (2012), and Aladwani & Deppeler (2012) agree that this group of students encounter learning and reading problems in three major dimensions namely: diversity, difficulty and disparity disability. Today, scholars have used different terminologies (some of them being vague) to understand, evaluate and describe dyslexia (Alquraini & Gut, 2012). Thus, for purposes of effectively defining dyslexia and achieving consensus with that definition, the European Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as poor ability to adapt and use spelling, reading, organizational skills, writing skills, computing skills and other important emotional and cognitive abilities caused by a difficulty in working memory, phonological processing, automation of basic skills and rapid naming (Alyson et al, 2013). British educational regulations categories dyslexia among the specific learning difficulties associated with dyscalculia, dysgraphia, dyspraxia as well as other learning difficulties (Ametepee et al, 2014). However, whereas disabilities related to dyslexia begin to express at the pre-school stages of learning, they become a predominant impediment to a child’s learning once they enter elementary school (Anke et al, 2011). According to Antonak & Larrivee (1995), these difficulties manifest in a child’s inability to master subjects, understand mathematical concepts or learn a foreign language. Faced with these difficulties, students consequently develop a lack of self-confidence; especially when the dyslexia is unrecognized or when effective teaching mechanisms are not adopted (Aske et al, 2013). According to Avramidis & Kalyva (2007), this may be a risk factor for psycho-emotional problems in these students. Nonetheless, dyslexic students tend to have a poor perception of their academic competencies and also tend to have poor intrinsic motivation (Bartow, 2015). According to Barr & Bracchitta (2008), this triggers the development of more behavioral problems compared to their peers. Against this backdrop, Bassot (2012) insists that early therapeutic interventions targeting letter-sound correspondence as well as systematic decoding skills are necessary for enhancing the student’s learning capabilities. Besides, Batty (2013) asserts that when these skills are practically applied by the students in a classroom environment, they are likely to rapidly develop effective learning skills.

From the perspective of inclusive education, it is necessary to maximally develop the potential of all students regardless of whether they are dyslexic or not. Hence, in pursuit to inclusive education in the UK, dyslexic students have equal rights for education through appropriate programs that account for their disabilities and deliver equal opportunities of learning compared to their non- dyslexic counterparts (Bell, 2010). According to Beecher (2013), this is the foundational basis for the adoption of professional and pedagogical-didactic programs in the UK. Ideally, these programs entail the application of individualized pedagogic methods that entail the use of various support mechanisms spanning from work methods, work time, autonomy development, testing skills, achievement evaluation, rehabilitation, and technological didactic methods (Berninger et al, 2013). Teachers and language or speech therapists who play an important role in assessing, treating and preventing dyslexia as well as other learning disabilities; are tasked with supporting dyslexic students and their parents during the time they are in school. According to Berry (2010), these professionals have a decisive role in teaching and developing the literacy of these students, especially considering that early recognition and provision of support play a significant role in enhancing student probability of success. Furthermore, Bjorklund (2011) indicates that for successful teaching of dyslexic students to be achieved, teachers must adopt individualized teaching methods which take into account the specifics of each student, their age and specific subjects to be taught. That said, Bouck (2012) indicates that some methodological adjustment when teaching these group of students requires that teachers should improve the performance frame of certain teaching units to clearly and appropriately instruct the students, to provide them with effectively allotted test situations, to engage them in different activities, and to deliver feedback to them in an effective way. Hence, dyslexic students not only rely on teachers to have an effective understanding of the learning items but also to make them feel emotionally safe (Bradshaw, 2009).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

A teacher’s ability to effectively teach dyslexic students depends on their skills and attitudes (Elias, 2014). Yet, according to Ade-Ojo (2012), people tend to stereotype individual groups depending on the attitudes they have on them, and that attitudes give a clear reflection of the people who hold them, thereby impacting on their perceptions of the people in that individual group. Bassot (2012) observes that some teachers hold a negative attitude towards the term ‘dyslexia’ and this consequently causes them to have a lower expectation of dyslexic students. However, to have open and effective learning opportunities to dyslexic students, teachers need to have a positive attitude towards these students because either way, negative attitudes contribute to negative learning outcomes among these students (Barr & Bracchitta, 2008). Besides, according to Aladwani & Deppeler (2012), teachers’ attitude towards dyslexic students can affect the continuity or frequency of providing support to them, thereby affecting their ability to perform normal life activities. Intriguingly, Elias (2014) found that teachers generally had a positive attitude towards dyslexia and dyslexic students but also had less favorable attitudes towards the environment under which these students were taught. Besides, Martan et al (2015a) observe that teachers tend to be insufficiently educated to handle dyslexic students, and they may be rarely receiving guidance from language and speech therapists. Moreover, the researcher remark that the teachers need specific teaching skills to meet the needs of dyslexic learners as well as learners with other learning disabilities. Nonetheless, research by Bassot (2012) also indicates that skills gained from initial professional development can effectively shape the teacher’s attitude towards teaching dyslexic students. The main aim of this study is to explore the attitude of teachers towards teaching dyslexic students. To achieve this aim, the study will be based on the following objectives:

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1.3 Objectives of the study

i. To explore the attitudes held by teachers towards dyslexia

ii. To identify the factors contributing to the attitudes towards dyslexia

iii. To explore the impact of these attitudes on students with dyslexia

1.4 Research questions

i. What are the attitudes held by teachers towards dyslexia?

ii. What are the factors contributing to these attitudes?

iii. What are the impacts of the attitudes held by teachers towards dyslexia on dyslexic students?

1.5 Justification of the Study

There are several research studies on the attitude of teachers towards dyslexic students that have yielded valid results on this research topic. For instance, Martan et al (2018) conducted a study on the attitudes of teachers towards dyslexic students and found that teachers had statistically significant attitudes towards their students. Besides, Duranovic et al (2014) investigated teachers’ attitude towards dyslexia and found that teachers had more positive attitudes towards their students. However, despite these findings, it emerges that most researchers are focusing on quantitative methods to examine the teachers’’ attitudes, leaving a paucity of qualitative studies on the same topic. This research gap exposes existing evidence about teacher’s attitudes towards dyslexic students to the shortcomings of qualitative study design while depriving these pieces of evidence a qualitative aspect. Hence, there is a need for more qualitative research studies, especially considering the subjective nature of attitudes that can be best evaluated through qualitative methods (Berninger et al, 2013). This study, therefore, takes a different approach by using qualitative research design to evaluate the teachers’ attitude towards dyslexic students. Ideally, the use of qualitative methodology will contribute additional and scope of understanding on the research topic, giving both students and practitioners rich knowledge about the topic based on the word-of-mouth from the people experiencing these attitudes. To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, this study will make an effective contribution to the already existing knowledge about dyslexia.

CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

There are many challenges faced by dyslexic students including negative stereotyping and public perceptions, poor educational outcomes, and stigma (Cui et al 2015). However, one major challenge identified in a previous study by Chambers et al (2008) is the lack of knowledge among their teachers about dyslexia. But, following the passage of legislation that advocates for education among the disabled students, there has been a considerable improvement in the use of inclusive classrooms within the British education system, thereby improving the participation of dyslexic students in the education (Berninger et al, 2013), and more schools are beginning to show the need for more instructional accommodation in those inclusive classrooms. Due to the crucial role of teachers to the learning process of this group of students, teachers’ attitudes can determine their educational outcomes (Washburn et al 2011). However existing research (e.g. Scanclon & Baker 2012, Rice 2009, and de Boer et al 2011) on the teachers’ attitudes towards dyslexic students reveal interesting insights that are worth noting. For instance, de Boer et al 2011 conducted a study that involved a review of 26 primary studies and found that most participants had either neutral or negative attitudes towards the inclusion of students with special educational needs such as dyslexia. Further evaluation by de Boer et al (2011) revealed that the teacher’s attitudes were either driven by experience or training on how to handle this group of students. In another study by Scanlon & Baker (2012), it was found that even if the expectations are that inclusive classrooms will render positive effects on the achievements students with disabilities, educators had little guidance on how to handle such inclusive classrooms. While research by Anke et al (2011) found that teachers handling dyslexic students tend to endorse inclusive education, it was also noted by the Bradshaw (2009) that the teachers have varied opinion regarding their teaching strategies. Nonetheless, considering the reviews by Anke et al (2011), it is still difficult to determine the level of positivity held by teachers towards their dyslexic students, and whether they have the willingness and the positivity to provide accommodating instructions to students with dyslexia. Hence, the present study, based on qualitative data, explored teacher’s attitude towards dyslexic students and their willingness to provide effective education to this group of students.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

Research on teacher’s attitude towards students with dyslexia has largely been based on two major theories namely: the theory of social constructivism and theory of planned behavior. The latter theory holds that people tend to choose their behaviors based on their intentions and that their behaviors tend to be dependent on their outward behavioral control (French et al 2013). Based on this theory, French et al (2013) argue that teacher’s conduct is much controlled by their attitude’s control, perceived opinions, and individual norms towards this group of students. Furthermore, French et al (2013) argue that the subjective norms and attitudes towards dyslexic students are as a result of their beliefs regarding the expected outcomes, elements that constrain or enable regulation over their behavior, and their significant others. Hence, this study draws from the theory of planned behavior to argue that teachers with negative attitudes towards dyslexic students may not have the willingness to help dyslexic students because they believe that these student’s conditions may not allow them to achieve better academic outcomes. Besides, the theory’s emphasis on beliefs on the expected outcomes helps in the understanding of how it is easier to predict the intentions of the teachers from their attitudes towards the subjective norm, perceived behavioral control and behavior (Ajzen, 2011). From another perspective, Bassot (2012) indicates that dyslexic students tend to acquire knowledge through active learning rather than cognitively. Besides, the author argues that the relationship held by people have with others plays a crucial role in how people acquire information. Bassot (2012) borrowed from Vygotsky’s opinion that in the presence of acclimatization to nature, even the most primitive people can be gaining rational thinking. Therefore, it is possible that the acceptance of dyslexic students by teachers and the provision of individualized instructional services, can help develop logical thinking, especially when the subject content of the curriculum is modified to suit an inclusive classroom.

2.3 Characteristics of Dyslexic Students

According to Yildiz et al (2012), dyslexia is a developmental disorder that is characterized by a wide range of complications that vary from mild to severe. Consequently, students with this form of complication are not able to comprehend the meaning of texts through reading. They are also incapable of proper writing, reading, information retrieval and language processing (Barr & Bracchitta, 2008). Research by Ness & Southall (2010) involved two groups of participants and found that those with dyslexia had decreased amount of grey matter compared to the control group, thereby warranting the conclusion that students with dyslexia have little grey matter in the brain areas responsible for dispensing spoken and written language. In another study conducted by Hudson et al (2007) regarding brain functioning, it was revealed that students with dyslexia had an under-activation of the section of the brain responsible for language processing. However, existing pieces of research evidence also show that dyslexia can occur as a result of biological influence. For instance, research by Ness & Southhall (2010) found chromosome 15 and 6 to be associated with reading disabilities. In the same study, it was revealed that 50% of the parents with dyslexic students had similar reading difficulties as their children. Basically, dyslexic students have difficulties with recognizing print letters. According to Crisp et al (2012), they tend to see the letters as vibrating or blurred, and therefore they experience difficulty in reading or answering questions during classwork. Consequently, a consensus has been built around the use of letters with larger fonts to enable an easier differentiation of letters by this group of students. According to Ness & Southhall (2010), bigger letters are especially important considering that dyslexic students tend to be unable to differentiate the words within a sentence and this inability causes confusions when combining different letters and different words to form a logical sentence. According to Crisp et al (2012), this word and letter confusion is often compounded by the fact that dyslexic students experience poor motor and visual control. Yet, according to DaDeppo (2009) poor motor control affects the ability of dyslexic students to move their eyes around while reading and this cannot easily read a sentence from the beginning to the end of the line. As a result, they tend to be slower than other normal students while reading textbooks. Recommendations by Crisp et al (2012) indicate that the assignments given to dyslexic students should be modified in a manner that the letters and sentences have blank spaces between them for an easier differentiation while reading. Besides, the authors recommend that teachers can use bullet points, and different colors to highlight the text so that the students are guided on when they can transition from one line to the other. This is especially necessary because, according to TechDis (2009) the difficulties faced by dyslexic students affect their ability to understand the meaning of texts, comprehend the ideas and develop a response.

Moreover, Ness & Southhall (2010) contend that dyslexic students find it difficult to respond to the commonly used skill-based methods of teaching and thus there is a need for an instructional modification that addresses their disabilities. Laasonen et al (2012) recommended that similar treatment should be given to students with other disabilities such as Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) because, in fact, ADHD has a diagnostic similarity with dyslexia: up to 45% of dyslexic students share the same diagnostic conditions of ADHD. In detail, according to Laasonen et al (2012), both dyslexic students and students with ADHD have abnormalities in their fatty acids. Moreover, when the study by Laasonen et al (2012) analyzed the neuropsychological levels of both dyslexia and ADHD students, they found similar problems of poor word recognition, impaired temporal processing, and impaired phonological processing. In a study by Harrison et al (2012), it was found that the number of dyslexic students dropping out of school is three times more than that of non-disabled students. On the same note, a study by Mcnamara (2012) found that only one out of ten students with dyslexia attend post-secondary school education and extend from secondary school to tertiary institutions; and to work-life. DaDeppo (2009) attributed this to difficulty in completing training in the post-secondary institutions. In a survey conducted by Harrison et al (2012), it was found that 3.6% of the sample population had completed post-secondary school training. Nonetheless, existing literature also reveals that even the dyslexic students who make it to post-secondary school institutions fail to get the same guidance they would get in secondary schools – because of the expectation that they should be more independent, develop self-advocacy and less structured educational procedures (Harrison et al, 2012). Harrison et al (2012) also made an important remark that dyslexic students who make it to post-secondary school education do not understand the state of their disability and the impact it may have on their lives. According to the authors, this lack of knowledge causes the students to be overwhelmed and frustrated by college life and course demands. The situation becomes worse because the students lack self-advocacy skills and therefore they cannot explain their disabilities to the teachers or school administration. The inability to understand their personal needs, strength, abilities, and limitations also make them unable to select the colleges and courses that suit their ability (DaDeppo, 2009).

Dyslexic students also have difficulties with spelling and writing and this makes them shut out of any possible career choice they might make. For instance, Riddick & English (2006) observed that these students are often locked out of teaching courses because they lack the crucial qualities (i.e. clear reading, speaking and writing abilities for the English language) to be enrolled for a teaching course. Therefore, even if such students would like to pursue teaching careers, they are often blocked out due to their inabilities. Consequently, in some cases, dyslexic students applying for post-secondary courses do not disclose their disabilities for fear of being rejected. Simon (2011) says that these are some of the reasons why students with dyslexia perform poorly in post-secondary school institutions. Existing research conducted in other countries such as the United States of America shows an increasing rate of arrest of disabled students than their normal counterparts. for instance, a study conducted by America’s Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (2012) indicated that whereas the average arrest for disabled students was at 73%, the arrest rate of students with dyslexia was at 62%. This indicates that dyslexic students face inequalities even in the criminal justice system. With the inequalities in the attainment of post-secondary education, it is also possible that dyslexic students tend to have a higher rate of unemployment compared to their non-dyslexic counterparts. For example, while there are no specific statistics in the UK regarding the unemployment rates of dyslexic graduates, statistics in the US reveal that the unemployment rate among dyslexic graduates is three times higher than the national average unemployment rate (Simon, 2011). Thomas et al (2007) assert that dyslexic graduates, together with other graduates with disabilities are discriminated against, and are therefore not in access to equal job opportunities. Thomas et al (2007) further state that even if this group of graduates is employed, they experience an equitable lower treatment compared to their non-disabled counterparts. Nonetheless, the recruitment standards set by most employers are discriminative of the disabilities that dyslexic graduates have, and this makes it difficult for dyslexic graduates to get employed even if they are academically qualified for such jobs. To avoid such forms of discrimination, dyslexic students together with students with other learning disabilities should have the experience and opportunity of quality education. Besides, Thomas et al (2007) recommend that teachers of dyslexic students should have the right attitude towards such students because attitude can affect the quality of education they deliver. Against this backdrop, it would be imperative to understand whether the teacher’s attitude towards such students is lacking and whether the poor teachers’ attitude affects the performance of dyslexic students.

2.4 Legislation

Statistics from the British Dyslexia Association (2018) indicate that 10% of the UK population is dyslexic and 4% of this population is at the severe stage of dyslexia. While this translates to around 7.3 million people in the UK, Dyslexia Action (2017) indicates that the figure is more likely to be 16% of the UK population, which translates to 11.5 million people. Nonetheless, the significant number of dyslexic population in the UK has triggered several legislations meant to protect the rights of these individuals, especially students with dyslexia. The two major legislations include the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA) and the Special Educational Needs Act 2001. The DDA 1995 describes discrimination of students with disabilities in two major ways namely: treating the students in a less favorable manner than other people and failing to make reasonable adjustments so much so that they are placed at a substantially disadvantaged position compared to other people. Thus, the DDA 1995 is concerned with and can be applied to all aspects of teaching disabled students (including dyslexic students) such as lectures, practical, lab classes, work placement, and field trips. Besides, the legislation also requires that other activities such as examinations, distance learning, and other learning resources should be accommodative to disables students. The legislation also requires educational institutions to adapt accommodative physical school environment (e.g. libraries, equipment, and buildings) to support disabled students. It is therefore required by the UK law that all the physical signs in educational institutions should be designed in a manner that is readable and comprehensible for dyslexic students. As part of the legislation’s requirement for learning and teaching practice for disables students, DDA 1995 requires institutions to make anticipatory adjustments, which are the adjustments the institutions consider as necessary for future students or new applicants – and making them in advance. However, there are several new duties that came with the latest legislation (Disability Discrimination Act 2005, DDA 2005) that are focused on a cultural shift. Ideally, Part 4 of the DDA 2005 gave disables students the responsibility of advocating for their own rights rather than relying on the institutions to facilitate these rights.

2.5 Inclusion and Instructional Accommodation of Dyslexic Students

Despite the challenges faced by dyslexic students, the critical interventions by both teachers and health/social care practitioners can enable the students to reach the acceptable standard of education in the UK (Murphy & Haller, 2015). These assertions are supported by Wai et al (2014) who insist that with an effective understanding of dyslexic students’ needs and deficits by teachers and dyslexia specialists can help enhance the academic achievement of such students. On the flipside, poor understanding of dyslexia and inability to provide appropriate instructional modification for dyslexic students can lead to poor academic performance among this group of students. In this regard, Murphy & Haller (2015) assert that poor academic performance affects future career choices and employability. Regardless of the challenges faced by dyslexic students, several pieces of research present valid reasons for inclusionary classrooms. For instance, Dowing (2008) asserts that inclusionary classrooms make dyslexic students have a sense of belonging to the school community. Besides, research by Valls and Kyriakides (2013) found that inclusionary classrooms enhance group learning and contribute to an improved classroom performance of dyslexic students. Furthermore, in group settings that include both non-dyslexic and dyslexic students, dyslexic students tend to work harder towards an improved classroom performance (Valls and Kyriakides, 2013), especially because in the face of a curriculum that is more demanding for dyslexic student, they tend to be more motivated with their non-dyslexic counterparts to work harder; while adapting to different instructional methodologies used by the teachers. Research by Tavakolian & Howell (2012) also indicate that when dyslexic students’ performance improves, they develop more motivation to attend school daily, and the regular school attendance enables them to complete their courses on time. However, Startling et al (2012) argue that for dyslexic students to achieve successful academic performance, teachers must deliver quality education while allowing them to participate in various classroom activities. Conversely, literature by Rice (2009) reveals an interesting insight that an inclusive delivery of education to dyslexic students is not only achieved by merely having the students in an inclusionary classroom. Rice (2009) justifies this point by noting that whereas efforts can be made to develop inclusionary classrooms, a considerable number of dyslexic students are still perform poorly in their examinations. Nevertheless, Yildiz et al (2012) observe that the trend of dyslexic student failure can be reversed by developing effective teaching skills among teachers on how to handle inclusionary classrooms.

CHAPTER THREE - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

A research methodology can be defined as a plan for conducting research, which highlights details of the specific techniques, strategies, methods, and the underlying philosophy for applying those strategies (Denscombe, 2010). Described in the sections below are the approaches and methods adopted by the researcher to achieve the research objectives. The sections identify the sources of data, the data analysis technique, the research design and any other instrument used to facilitate the completion of the study. Basically, this section will state, describe and justify why these methodologies were adopted by the researcher.

3.2 Research Philosophy

According to Melnyk & Fineout-Ovverholt (2011), research philosophy/paradigm describes the background and knowledge within which a particular study is carried out. The current study adopted an interpretivist research paradigm, whereby, according to Plichta & Kelvin (2013), the researcher assesses a phenomenon based on the perception of the people experiencing it. The current study aimed to explore the attitudes of teachers towards dyslexic students, and more importantly, the factors that contribute to these attitudes. Hence, it aimed to understand the true attitudes of the teachers experiencing it. Against this background, Eastermy-Smith et al (2012) argue that reality is complex and multifactorial, and therefore can best be understood from the context within which it exists. Hence, the researcher in the current study held that understanding the attitudes of the teachers based on their working context (i.e. the environment within which teachers work) will be key in understanding the factors that contribute to these attitudes. Hence, based on this rationale, this study strongly supported the adoption of interpretivist paradigm.

3.3 The Research Approach

A research study can either adopts a deductive or an inductive research approach. In the deductive approach, according to Plichta & Kelvin (2013), the researcher uses general information to derive a specific theory about the phenomenon under investigation. In doing so, the researcher uses logical statements to develop hypotheses that help in testing the theory. On the other hand, inductive approach, according to Eastermy-Smith et al (2012), entails the use of specific information to derive general knowledge or information about a phenomenon and is mostly used in quantitative research. But the main aim of this study is to investigate the attitudes of teachers towards dyslexic students, therefore, the researcher sought to understand these attitudes from the perspective of the people experiencing it. This forms the basis of inductive research approach which adopts qualitative methods. According to Plichta & Kelvin (2013), qualitative research approach, which is inductive in nature, is less structured and therefore enables the researcher to have a comprehensive understanding of the research question within the context in which the study is being carried out. This justifies the use of inductive research approach in the current study.

3.4 Research Method

There are three types of research methods that can be adopted in any type of research namely qualitative research method, quantitative research method, and mixed research method. Quantitative research method involves the testing of research hypothesis by evaluating the relationship between variables (Williman, 2011). Furthermore, according to Green & Thorogood (2014), quantitative research methods involve the use of statistical procedures and instruments. However, the quantitative research method is most appropriate when there are hypotheses to be tested – thus not ideal for the present study. On the other hand, qualitative research methodology entails an examination of subjective human experience using non-statistical methods (Polgar & Thomas, 2013). The current study aims to explore the subjective human experience of teachers handling dyslexic students in terms of their attitudes towards these students. Based on the writings by Eastermy-Smith et al (2012), this study could, therefore, be associated with naturalistic inquiry, which involves an exploration of complex human experiences and attitudes of the teachers being studied. The choice of qualitative research methods for this study was based on several theoretical underpinnings. First, qualitative research methods provide an opportunity for the researcher to develop a theory in a holistic and subjective manner. Secondly, the information could be generated in a qualitative way, which could help in the teacher attitude assessment as it helps in the integration of work environment, organizational characteristics and personal experiences of teachers teaching dyslexic students (Williman, 2011). Thirdly, according to Green & Thorogood (2014), qualitative methods eliminate an over-simplification of the reality of the experiences of the people being examined. Hence, by evaluating their true experiences, a detailed assessment of the teacher’s attitudes can be achieved.

3.5 Data Collection

Data collection is an important part of every research study. According to Denscombe (2010), the importance of data collection is seen in the way the results of any study can be affected by poorly collected data. That said, any data collected through a research process can either be primary data or secondary data. Primary data is any information that originates from a live source, while secondary data is any piece of information used in research that originates from pre-existing sources (Green & Thorogood, 2014). Plichta & Kelvin (2013) observe that in qualitative research, the researcher uses various sources such as interviews, a review of documents and observations. However, data collection procedures in qualitative studies can be categorised into documents, audio-visual materials, observations and interviews (Williman, 2011). Whereas observations focus groups and interviews are commonly used, face to face interviews are the most common. Against this background, there are several ways in which interviews can be conducted. For instance, a researcher can use open-ended or conversational interviews, or predetermined and highly structured interviews. However, Eastermy-Smith et al (2012) argue that for the most part, interviews are less structured and open-ended, whereby the researcher asks the same questions to the respondents with a considerable variation in the follow-up questions. This research chose interviews as the most appropriate method of data collection because of the individual views and perceptions of teachers about their attitudes needed to be considered. In qualitative research, semi-structured interviews are widely used (Williman, 2011). Semi-structured questions were considered the ideal for the current study because they could provide the necessary flexibility to gain in-depth information from the participants through probing and follow-up questions. This decision was also informed by Eastermy-Smith et al (2012) who asserted that the advantage of qualitative research method is that it reduces the researcher’s potential bias by allowing the true voice of the participant to be heard and considered. On the flipside, Plichta & Kelvin (2013) content that the researcher might find it difficult to gather the most relevant information and the process might be time-consuming. The repetitive nature of the qualitative research process requires the researcher to alter the questions as they gather more knowledge from the participant. In doing so, the researcher can alter the interview questions to suit the kind of information they need (Green & Thorogood, 2014). Besides, the researcher was flexible enough to interviewee’s knowledge and concerns. In the current study, therefore, the researcher first posed the questions to the school managers to find their views on how the questions could be amended.

3.6 Research Sampling

The researcher selected participants through convenient sampling. In doing so, emails were sent to the principals of the respective schools as well as to the heads of the schools’ special needs departments to request for permission for accessing the sample participant and to carry our any subsequent research activity. Once ethical approval from the university’s board of ethics, the researcher sent out a mail and a poster to advertise of the upcoming research to welcome any teacher who would have been interested in participating. Ultimately, the researcher recruited a sample of 6 participants for the interview data collection based on the theoretical underpinnings of Williman (2011) that in qualitative research, sufficient data can be gathered from as low as six participants. Upon receiving expression of interest from the potential participants (i.e. in response to the advertisement), the researcher acknowledged the expression of interest and set a convenient date for the interviews. Each interview was set to take at least 45 to 60 minutes and was conducted in a private classroom. The furthermore, the interviews were conducted when the teacher were comfortable spending at least one hour in the interview or when they were off-duty.

3.7 Data Analysis

Ideally, the process of data collection was done simultaneously with qualitative data analysis to enable an effective primary understanding of the interview questions. Williman (2011) argues that this repetitive process of collecting and analyzing data simultaneously occurs until it reaches a point where no new themes of data emerge (i.e. a point of saturation), signifying the end of data collection. Nevertheless, considering the fact that interviews would result in large volumes of data that could possibly overwhelm, the study adopted thematic analysis approach as the data analysis methodology. The themes were organized based on the research objectives with sub-themes organized to fall under each main theme.

3.8 Ethical Consideration

Considering that the current research would involve human beings, the researcher found it important to make several ethical considerations. For instance, the researcher ensured the integrity of each participant and endeavored to maintain the quality of the study. Furthermore, each participant’s name was kept under anonymity for purposes of maintaining their confidentiality. Another important ethical consideration made by the researcher is that each participant provided their responses willingly by signing a consent form (Appendix 1) – thereby ensuring the impartiality and independence of the research. the researcher ensured that no personal information like phone contacts, email address or name of the institution was asked from the participants. In reference to Plichta & Kelvin (2013), this ensured that the responses were kept under tight anonymity and non-disclosure of personal data in the study. Eastermy-Smith et al (2012) also add that ethical considerations in educational research must provide a statement showing the participant’s rights to withdraw from the study at any point in time they wish. To abide by this ethical consideration, the researcher informed the respondents that they were free to withdraw from the study as they would wish.

CHAPTER FOUR - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

The section below presents an analysis and discussion of findings of the interviews with participants. The discussions are organized in themes highlighting the findings on each research objectives. The chapter aims have a comprehensive understanding of the teachers’ attitudes towards dyslexic students.

4.2 What are the teacher’s attitudes towards teaching dyslexic students?

Confidence is a feeling or attitude of belief, trust, and assurance of oneself or others. To evaluate the respondent’s attitude towards teaching dyslexic students, they were asked to describe how confident they were while handling dyslexic students and a common response was that the teachers were generally confident about themselves and their jobs as teachers. For instance:

Interviewee1: Umm, quite now. A lot more confident now umm but yea at the moment I am feeling quite good. Most things are under control most of the time. So if I was to put it on a scale of I-10, I would probably say about a 7. Still room to improve but yea.

Interviewee 2: Quite confident as long as I know, as long as I do my research and I organise myself. I am fine, I am quite confident. I enjoy the task

Interviewee3: Yeah pretty confident

Interviewee4: I think I have got the management out the way because there is a big challenge with behaviour management. I am starting to realize that I need to do my own homework on teaching skills and teaching content. Like I obviously have a good grasp but to make my teaching better and to make me feel more confident, I definitely have to do my own teaching for sure.

From the above transcripts, it emerges that teachers have a general positivity and confidence about their career as teachers of dyslexic students, although they recognize that it is a challenging affair. Antonak & Alexander (2011) remark that developing a confident attitude towards dyslexic students is one of the most effective ways of enhancing a good relationship with them because due to their disabilities within an inclusive classroom context, such students tend to have poor self-confidence. A possible implication of this finding is that the confident attitude exuded by the teachers towards their careers will have a positive influence on the dyslexic students to develop the confidence they need to cope in an inclusive classroom. Similar results were found by Doktor (2010) who noted that confidence and efficacy is a fundamental recipe for effective engagement with dyslexic students. When teachers have a confident attitude towards dyslexic students, they are capable of developing an effective interaction between themselves and the dyslexic students, and between the dyslexic students their non-dyslexic counterparts. Similar remarks are made by Cassady (2011) who reported that lack of a confident attitude among teachers of dyslexic students may cause confusion and stress, thereby impeding the delivery of modified instructional teaching in inclusive classrooms.

4.3 Factors contributing to teachers’ attitude towards dyslexia

The researcher explored the factors that influence teachers’ attitudes towards dyslexic students by asking them about how they feel when they hear of the term ‘dyslexia. A common sub theme that emerged is the respondents tend to associate the term ‘dyslexia’ with additional effort to make the students effectively understand what they are being taught. For instance:

Interviewee1: …it made me feel a bit worried cause I would worry about not having enough knowledge to support someone and I would worry about probably from a selfish point of view…. I would be thinking I have all this to think about and now I have to support someone in a completely different way from everyone in the class….

Interviewee3:……I know if I was told you got a student with dyslexia in your class, I would be aware of the fact and I would want to ensure that they still access the learning and I would be conscious of that; but I don’t think I would feel any way like it was a negative thing…….

These findings corroborate with writings of Barr & Bracchitta (2008) that teachers associate teaching dyslexic students with more work and extra efforts than they would need in teaching normal students, and this influences their attitude towards the students. Bartow (2015) also argues that teachers tend to develop a negative attitude towards students with dyslexia because teaching them involves extra skills and more efforts than they would need when handling normal students. It is, therefore, possible to extrapolate that teaching students teachers of dyslexic students associate the term ‘dyslexia’ with additional work and this may affect their attitude towards their career. During probing, the respondents were also asked about some of the factors that contributed to their confidence and experience emerges as a major factor. For instance:

Researcher: Have you always been confident since you started?

Interviewee 2: No, its come with a lot of experience throughout the year

Interviewee3: I started here as an unqualified teacher so that was quite daunting at first, but I would say within a few months I felt more confident and obviously as time went on I got more and more confident with teaching.

Researcher: What do you think helped you to be more confident?

Interviewee3: Yea I think having been in the same school I think it has been time because its been building relationships with students and I suppose the support of people in this school and support of the university and like CPT that I have received and everything like that has helped towards feeling more confident.

Researcher: Would you say you are more confident now than when you first started?

Interviewee4: Yes, of course. I look back than I would think I was pathetic when you look at the things you are upset about when you face new challenges and you are like how would I of cope back then but yea lot more confident now

From the above views given by the respondents, it is clear that they have a significant level of confidence with their career as teachers of dyslexic students, which contribute to a positive attitude towards their jobs, and the confidence has largely come along with experience. The existing body of research highlights the impact of professional confidence on an individual’s attitudes within the work environment. For instance, Bassot (2012) asserts that by being confident about their professions, employees tend to develop a feeling of happiness and positive thoughts that acts as an attraction to people around them. Consequently, according to Beecher (2013), people tend to enjoy the being around individuals with happiness and positivity thus enhancing how they relate with each other. Self-confidence, therefore, emerges as an effective factor that contributes to a positive attitude in teachers handling dyslexic students. They begin with a negative attitude and somehow feel not able to handle such students. But with time and experience, they tend to develop a positive attitude. For example:

Interviewee1: …..Um I am not sure actually, that’s a good question. At first when I started my career here I would say it made me feel a bit worried cause I would worry about not having enough knowledge to support someone and I would worry about probably from a selfish point of view. I would be thinking I have all this to think about and now I have to support someone in a completely different way from everyone in the class. Now its less like that I take in more in a stride and especially with putting strategies in place, its rewarding for me…..

This finding corroborates with the findings by Misoka (2017) that teacher’s experience with dyslexic students has an influence on their attitude towards students with dyslexia. It is, therefore, possible to extrapolate that while teachers may begin with a negative attitude towards dyslexic students at the start of their careers, the more experience and familiarity they have with the students the more they develop positive attitudes towards them. When the respondents were asked about their understanding of dementia, the respondents demonstrated a fair understanding of the major symptoms of dyslexia such as recognizing letters, confusing words, and slower processing of information. For instance:

Interviewee1: ….. Umh, not that much I have a basic understanding, Um I have an understanding of obviously struggling with the effects of literacy, umm…..I once read a book about it actually probably my first year of uni. About the idea of shapes and distortion and how, how it happens from birth and things like that. I cant remember the examples it gave but it highlighted to me that its not just…..

Interviewee 3: Well I know its kind of like a communication thing in terms of reading and I guess writing as well and copying, I know obviously maybe when they are reading something find it difficult to…..I don’t know if certain letters get muddled up like b’s and d’s because they look similar. Difficulties copying down from the board, reading big chunks of text especially different types of fonts they might find difficult…..

Interviewee 4: ….I suppose the bigger one would be delay and responding to written task and reading task to a group of children and waiting for response and their being a quite fair delay in being able to process the information and respond to it….

Bjorklund (2011) argues a teacher’s understanding of dyslexic students and the learning problems they encounter is an important determinant of their attitude towards such students. Elias (2014) also contends that without a proper understanding of the condition, it may be difficult for teachers to modify their instructional skills to suit the needs of these students. Therefore, the finding of the current study that teachers have a fair understanding of dyslexia and its symptoms confirms its earlier findings of a generally positive attitude towards dyslexic students. Moreover, from the interviews, it emerges that the teacher’s understanding of dyslexia from their own experience contributes to a positive attitude towards dyslexic students, as revealed by the respondent below:

Interviewee 4: ……I look at my case, I have got a severely dyslexic year eleven girl and its incredible to watch. I can understand because I know what the words she is trying to say are but its all jumbled up. The first letter and the last letter, its quite something……

The above interviewee demonstrates how having a dyslexic kid and understanding the problems experienced by the kid has influenced their attitude towards their students. These findings corroborate with literature by Ahsa et al (2012) that spending more time with dyslexic students, having more interaction with them and developing a relationship with them plays a role in the development of a positive attitude towards this group of students. When the interviewees were asked about their experience with dyslexic students, they generally expressed the idea that their experiences depend on various levels and abilities of dyslexic students, some presenting a difficult experience while others being easier to handle. For instance:

Interviewee 1: : So its depends on the pupil sometimes it can be printing off in different colours or blending extra support sometimes its with spelling or ill give sentence starters…

Interviewee 2: They are all so different, so two children who both use blue paper for example won’t learn the same way just because they have the same colour doesn’t mean they learn the same.

Interviewee 3: I teach maths, maybe it’s a little easier then other subjects because there is not great big chunks of writing and reading to do

Interviewee 4: So, I got a girl in year 7 and there is a boy on year 8, that has dyslexia that I only discovered few month ago. His writing is all over the page and I hate to admit because I should of discovered it a lot sooner but he changed his book from a white page book to a yellow page book and it made a word of difference. So, his was quite a simple strategy but with my year 11 girl you have to be very, very patient with what she is trying to say…… you got to be or find constructive ways to remind her of that without putting her down. Evidently that will be marks she won’t be awarded for because her spelling isn’t going to be up there with other pupils what I have learned form it is be patient and tactful when giving guidance.

These findings exude teachers’ experiences with dyslexic students and how such experiences have enabled them to develop various mechanisms and techniques for handling the students based on their unique abilities and challenges. The findings confirm assertions by Alyson et al (2013) that whereas teachers may lack the skills and techniques of handling dyslexic students at their first experience with them, continuous interaction with these students provides an opportunity to understand them better and modify instructional skills meant to accommodate their inabilities. As highlighted in the responses above, it emerges that teachers tend to have a positive attitude towards teaching these students after developing the skills and that enable them to easily teach the students. This confirms the earlier findings that experience influences teachers' attitude towards dyslexic students. However, the results also show the failure of individuals, not only teachers, to understand dyslexia and its symptoms may contribute to stigmatization. For instance:

Interviewee 5: …But still think there is a stigma around being dyslexia, kids laughing and joking about I do think that still happens…

Interviewee 4: ….My sister is dyslexic so, it doesn’t really phase me but my granny use to call her stupid and that has always stuck with me and it makes me cringe when that’s actually said and she would say “You know she can’t get it, she just being stupid” and that breaks my heart….

The above responses indicate failure to understand dyslexia and its symptoms may influence a negative/stigmatizing attitude towards dyslexic students. Although the responses do not directly refer to teachers, it is possible to extrapolate that if teachers never had a proper understanding of what dyslexia students undergo or the symptoms of dyslexia, they would as well develop a negative attitude, dyslexic students. Similar remarks were made by Antonak & Alexander (2011) a proper understanding of dyslexia symptoms has an influence on people’s attitudes towards dyslexia. Understanding dyslexia entails having adequate information about the condition and how easy it is to gain such information. When respondents were asked about the process of being informed of their classes having dyslexic students, a majority of the respondents indicated that they rely on both their personal efforts and on the institution's administrative heads to have information about the availability of dyslexic students. For example:

Interviewee 1: …..and so at the beginning when I was getting to know my classes, the only way I could find that information would be actively searching for it……So I would go on the system, we have pupil passports and the only way I would know is if I thought that person has a SEND or if they had some equipment with them and I had to look it up. Whereas now it much more active and we get sort of class list to look through. And especially how the head of SEND is here, I can just ask questions there’s actually a person there I can ask how can I help so and so or whatever…..

Interviewee 2: …So, for us, for learning support our SENCO would tell us which children has dyslexia whom we would come into contact with….

Interviewee 3: ……So, basically as a classroom teacher we had to do something called a class overview which is where you fill out, or look at all your SEND pupils and write their name, what the difficulties are and what strategies you might implement to support them in the classroom……

Rajovic &Jovanovic (2013) argued that lack of proper information about dyslexia, unavailability of various classroom resources such as sufficient curriculum and technology tend to influence a negative attitude of teachers towards dyslexic students. However, the results of the current study have neither revealed any negative aspect of information regarding dyslexic students, nor any difficulty met by teachers in retrieving information about dyslexic students. It is, therefore, possible to extrapolate that the accessibility of this information could have contributed to the positive attitude of teachers towards their dyslexic students has already been found by this study. Chung et al (2015) argue that attitude entails a person emotive and cognitive assessments and behavioral emotions towards another individual. But Conner et al (2013) argue that the cognitive component entails the teacher’s information, familiarity, and belief about the dyslexic students in the classroom. Therefore, the ease with which the teachers are able to acquire information about dementia plays a major role in their developing their attitude towards the students. Hence, these pieces of literature triangulate with the earlier findings of this study that teachers have a generally positive attitude towards dyslexic students, considering the interviewees' indication that information about dyslexic students is easily accessible to them. Training also emerged as a major determinant of the attitude of teachers towards dyslexic students. When the respondents were probed about any training that they had undergone for teaching dyslexic students, they revealed interesting insights that are worth noting. For instance:

Interviewee 1: ….What I have been thinking about recently especially cause we had some training on SEND recently and we were talking about how often with a lot of SEND and dyslexia especially the things you put in place to support that pupil also help the whole class. Um so for example the sentence starters…….And that’s another thing actually with having more training with Dyslexia and SEND knowing that sometimes that behavior can be caused by not being able to access the learning. I had a pupil in year 7 who has dyslexia and I just couldn’t understand why he wasn’t engaging but its just that I didn’t know he had dyslexia… Then once I found out even something as simple as giving him a blue handout rather than a white one made the world of difference for him….

The above transcript illustrates that staff training plays a major role in enabling teachers to understand how to support dyslexic students as well as how to positively respond to some of their behaviors in a manner that encourages learning and enhances their ability to compete with their peers. This finding illustrates how training influences positive attitude towards dyslexic students’ behavior. The respondents also expressed the role of training in enhancing effective communication between them and the dyslexic students, aiding a better understanding of their needs and behaviors to facilitate effective teaching. For instance:

Interviewee 1:….So more training I think just, I think I’m quite good at keeping the lines of communication open so ill email the SEND coordinator and well have a back and forth and then ill understand a bit more about this pupil or that pupil…..

Interviewee:….we do as TA’S especially we do have a battle with teachers because the student present their frustrations and anxiety as bad behaviours, and we are often trying to explain to them (others teachers), its not its just that they don’t understand or they just cant see i…..So, I think definitely all staff training on dyslexic would be beneficial. And just ways to not expect them to be an expect or just ways to get them to understand or knowing the right person to go to if they are not sure about what they need to do or things like that.

The above findings on training and its influence on teachers' attitude towards dyslexic students corroborate with several other findings of existing studies. For instance, Conner et al (2015) assert that based on the learning theory of attitude change, teachers tend to change their attitude after getting more training, observational learning and classical conditioning – all meant to create desirable emotional reactions towards dyslexic students. Chiner & Cardona (2013) argues that a lack of institutional training and support can affect the teacher’s acceptance of dyslexic students. Furthermore, Rice (2009) argued that teacher’s attitude towards dyslexic students can be influenced by their training, among other factors such as the grade level they teach, their experience and severity of student’s disability. It is, therefore, possible to conclude that training has a major effect on teachers' attitude towards dyslexic students.

4.4 The impact of teachers’ attitude towards dyslexic students on students with dyslexia

Further probing to explore the impact of teacher’s attitude towards dyslexic students revealed that the attitude held by teachers generally affects the approach they take when handling the students and therefore separates dyslexic from non-dyslexic students; although they may be in the same classroom. For instance, when asked whether their perceptions and attitudes affect the students, some of the respondents noted that:

Interviewee 1: ….it affects how I approach them in terms of the support that I give. So, it can be as simple as when I am printing things out; getting it on blue or yellow paper depending on what helps the most….

Results also show that having a positive attitude towards dyslexic students places them at a level ground with their non-dyslexic counterparts because positivity towards such students influences the application of accommodative instructional techniques that places dyslexic students at par with their non-dyslexic counterparts. For instance:

Interviewee 1…we were talking about how often with a lot of SEND and dyslexia especially the things you put in place to support that pupil also help the whole class. Um so for example the sentence starters; if I did print of the sentence starters for every person in the class they would all be on a level playing field. Its not about just helping one that would be useful for everyone and so im trying to do it more that approach so sort of taking the limitations for everyone rather then boosting one pupil or helping them…

The impact of positive and negative attitudes of teachers towards dyslexic students has been documented in various pieces of literature. For instance, Avramidis & Kalyva (2007) argues that dyslexic students tend to note any form of a negative attitude held towards them by their teachers and this affect their ability to freely interact with them in a manner that enhances the academic performance. On the contrary, Bjorklund (2011) claims that when dyslexic students notice a positive attitude on their teachers and this enhances their ability to freely interact with their teachers and develop an academically benefiting relationship regardless of their disabilities. These triangulating pieces of evidence warrant the conclusion that teacher’s positive attitudes towards their students have positive impacts on the student’s performance while the negative attitudes impact negatively on the dyslexic student’s academic performance.

CHAPTER FIVE- CONCLUSIONS AND RECCOMENDATIONS

This qualitative study aimed to achieve three main objectives namely: to explore teacher’s attitudes towards dyslexic students, to identify factors influencing teacher’s attitude towards dyslexic students, and to identify the impact of these attitudes on students with dyslexia. In regards to the first objective, the study has found that teachers have a generally confident attitude towards dyslexic students. But, evidence has also emerged that the confidence and positivity towards dyslexic students develop as the teachers interact more with the students. Confidence here refers to a feeling or attitude of belief, trust, and assurance of oneself or others. A possible implication for the practice of this finding is that teachers handling dyslexic students should take time to have more interaction with dyslexic students so that they can have a rapid developing of positive attitude and perception of this group of students. The second objective of the study was to explore the factors contributing to these attitudes towards dyslexic students. Here, the study found several pieces of evidence that confirmed the earlier findings of positivity and confidence among the teachers. For instance, the study found that teacher’s experience had a significant influence on the teacher’s attitudes. Ideally, it has been found that earlier on before spending more time with the students and interacting with them, teachers tend to have a negative attitude towards the students. But, after gaining more experience and building more rapport with the students, they tend to develop a more positive attitude towards the students. This finding relates to the theory of planned behavior, which holds that people tend to choose their behaviors based on their intentions and therefore the subjective norms and attitudes towards dyslexic students are as a result of their teachers’ beliefs regarding the expected outcomes. Based on this theory, the study concludes that teachers tend to have a negative attitude towards dyslexic students at the beginning of their interaction with dyslexic students because they expect such students to have poor capabilities. But later on, after having a long experience with them, the teachers learn the capabilities of these students and therefore begin to develop a positive attitude towards them. Apart from experience, the study has also found factors such as teacher’s training and teachers’ understanding of dyslexia and its symptoms. It is therefore recommended that teachers handling dyslexic students should undergo regular training and instructional skills review to ensure that they develop effective skills for handling dyslexic students, and to have a better understanding of the problems experienced by dyslexic students. Lastly, in regards to the impacts of teachers’ attitude towards dyslexic students, the study has found that generally, a negative attitude towards dyslexic students contributes to the stigmatization of dyslexic students. On the contrary, a positive attitude towards the students has been found to have a positive impact on the student’s academic performance. This study, therefore, recommends that education policymakers should consider the development of effective policies that support the enhancement about teachers’ skills and knowledge of handling dyslexic students so that they have the necessary support for developing a positive attitude towards the students.

5.1 Strengths and Limitations of the Study

This study relied on small sample size (i.e. only six participants) and therefore its findings may not be generalizable to a larger population. Besides, the study took a qualitative research design - with data collected through interviews. But a major limitation of interviews is that the researcher’s influence may have a negative influence on the collected data. The study depended much on the skills and observations of the researcher, and therefore any researcher’s biased point of view could have been included in the collected data. Nonetheless, the findings of this study add to the current literature on teacher’s hesitancy and level of receptiveness towards teaching dyslexic students. Ultimately, school administrators and teachers can benefit from the findings of this study by implementing this study’s recommendations.

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