Sustainable Construction and Resource Efficiency

Chapter 1: Introduction

The construction industry makes use of a lot of natural resources (UK Green Building Council, 2020). Most of these resources are finite, in the sense that they are limited and can be depleted in the near future. The continual use of these resources has exerted quite some degree of pressure on the environment. For instance, UKGBC (2020) reports that the UK economy alone used 576 Megatonnes of material in the year 2015. Seven years earlier, in 1998, the Uk economy had used roughly half this figure. UKGBC (2020) also reports that the UK construction industry generated 120 Mt of construction waste in the year 2014. On the other hand, in recent years, there has been an increased concern across the world over climate change (Recognition of global warming growing in US, 2012). In the same report, it is implied that climate change mainly arises from the release of huge quantities of carbon dioxide, methane and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. With such high concentrations, the ozone layer continuously gets damaged, leading to what is popularly known as global warming. The effects of global warming are very disastrous as has been witnessed in the recent cases of excessive flooding, unbearable heat waves, extreme weather events, uncontrollable ice melt, rising sea levels, ocean acidification, unnatural migration of animals, drought, crop failure, livestock shortage, lower groundwater levels, and increased pest infestation, among others. The construction industry has been identified as one of the most notorious in terms of release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere (UK Green Building Council, 2020). This has had such a great impact on the environment and has led to worldwide campaigns advocating for a more sustainable approach in establishing the built environment (Bassioni, 2015). Sustainable construction mainly aims at reducing the impact of construction activities and buildings on the environment. This can be achieved through the use of renewable sources of energy and recyclable raw materials (Cabezas, Klemeš and Worrell, 2005). Also, sustainable construction aims at reducing the levels of consumption of energy in buildings. The reduction of wastes is another goal of sustainability in construction. Other goals include the creation of environmentally friendly areas of residence and work and conservation of natural resources (Kibert, 2016). The two main factors that make the construction industry a real threat to the environment are energy usage and emissions. Energy use in the construction industry stands at 36% of the total energy use in the world (Worldgbc.org, 2017). Nearly all the heavy machinery used for construction (including excavators, backhoe, dragline excavators, bulldozers, graders, wheel tractor scrapers, trenchers, loaders, tower cranes, pavers, compactors, telehandlers, feller bunchers, dump trucks, pile boring machines, pile driving machines, boom lift, skid steer loader, articulated hauler, off-highway trucks, cold planers, drum rollers, and carry deck cranes) rely heavily on fossil fuels. Statistics have it that the construction industry accounts for a whopping 36% of the total energy usage in the world, and 40% of the total emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere (Worldgbc.org, 2017). The shipping of construction materials to and from the construction sites is particularly a culprit for carbon dioxide emissions. The operation of the heavy equipment also contributes to the release of greenhouse gases. The manufacture of raw materials for construction is another notable source of greenhouse gases. For instance, the manufacture of concrete has so far released 2.8 bn tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere (Worldgbc.org, 2017). The figures are set to go above the ceiling, given that 4bn tonnes of CO2 are added into the atmosphere every year from the manufacture of cement alone (Worldgbc.org, 2017).

The production of hazardous waste also makes the construction industry a threat to the environment. If such wastes are disposed of inappropriately, pollution of the environment sets in. This ends up harming the health of the inhabitants of the surrounding area (Epa.gov, 2007). It is for the above reasons that sustainable principles of construction are being championed for. One set of measures to ensure sustainability in the construction industry is fast gaining popularity and has been dubbed green engineering solutions. Green engineering is basically the creation, commercialization, and application of processes and products in a manner that minimizes pollution, enhances sustainability, and reduces the dangers to human health and the environment while still upholding the economic viability and efficiency of the processes and products (Yudelson, 2006). Green engineering thrives on the fact that the resolve to safeguard human health and the environment can be most beneficial and budget-friendly when applied implemented much earlier in the design and development stages of a process or product (Du & Lui, n.d.).

1.2 Research problem

A high percentage of construction firms claim that adopting sustainable construction methods is very challenging (Myers, 2005). One reason they give as to why sustainable construction is challenging is the high costs involved. The World Green Building trends 2018 Smart Market report states that nearly 40% of construction firms in Britain complained that they found it difficult to adopt sustainable construction practices because of the high costs involved. Another 50% of firms claimed that the initial investment required for green engineering solutions is simply prohibitive. On the contrary, there is a rising demand for green buildings by clients all over the world. Many construction firms are therefore caught up in a quagmire over costs and demand. Which way do they go? The claim of prohibitive costs is still debatable and can be linked to negative attitudes on the part of construction firms. In another survey by Ramboll, titled Sustainable Buildings Market Study, 405 architects, developers, contractors and investors operating in Northern Europe were asked about trends in sustainable development. It was realized that there is a great misconception on the costs and benefits of sustainable buildings. More than 50 % of the respondents did not know whether sustainable buildings are more costly than traditional buildings, both at the building stage and operational phase. It became clear that there is no tangible evidence to show that sustainable buildings are profitable in the long run. There is a great need to demystify the costs associated with green engineering solutions, with the hope that there will be a positive attitude change that will drive numerous construction firms to adopt green engineering solutions.

1.2.1 Research aims and objectives

The main objective of this research is to analyze the profitability of Green Engineering Solutions. This goal will be achieved by studying three notable green buildings, namely Humber College - Building NX in Toronto, Ontario, 101 McNabb Street in Markham, Ontario, and the Edelweiss project by Ecohome in Wakefield, Quebec. A breakdown of the construction costs involved in putting up the structures, and the energy costs arising from day-to-day operations by the occupants will give enough evidence whether green building is profitable both in the short term and in the long run. The main goal will be realized by considering the following specific objectives:

To identify some of the green engineering solutions applied in structures. To determine costs involved in setting up green structures. To analyze the benefits realized by the implementation of green engineering solutions. To compare the energy use by the green buildings to that of similar traditional buildings. To determine the savings realized by the adoption of green engineering solutions.

1.3 Summary

This chapter presents the background, context, and rationale for the current research. An introduction to the concepts of sustainability in construction and green engineering is done. The overall and specific research objectives are also listed herein. The next chapter will present a detailed literature review of the concepts of sustainable construction and green engineering solutions.

Chapter 2 Literature review

Chapter 1 analyzed the need for this research to be carried out by providing some background information on sustainable construction and green engineering. So that a valid conclusion can be made on the benefits of sustainable buildings, it was prudent to dig deeper into past writings on the same topic which makes it possible to have more understanding of the issues related to the main objective of this study. The main goal of this literature review is to detail the principles of green engineering solutions and highlight their contribution to sustainability. Also, the literature review presents the findings of past case studies on sustainable buildings and therefore identifies the gaps in research that need to be evened out.

2.1 Defining sustainability

The term sustainability is used by so many people in several different contexts. However, its origin is related to ecology, in which a sustainable ecosystem is taken to be one that can last in a self-sustaining manner for a considerable period of time. Ecologists initially used the word to express the pace at which the extraction of renewable resources does not threaten the balance of the ecosystem. Since then, about 60 different definitions of sustainability have been proposed. As expected, there is quite some degree of disagreement with its meaning in both practical and theoretical applications. For the purpose of the current research, the definitions that will be most helpful are those of sustainable development and sustainable construction (Portney, 2015).

2.2 Defining sustainable development

The issue of sustainable development arose from the worry that the current rate of use of natural resources would soon go beyond the ability of the earth to produce these resources and take care of the waste. Such worries are backed by reliable facts from surveys. For instance, a recent survey by the New Economics Foundation concluded that if all inhabitants of the planet earth used resources in equal measure to the people in the United Kingdom, a total of three planets with a similar endowment of natural resources as planet earth would be needed to sustain the current world population. Worse still, if all inhabitants of planet earth would use resources at the same rate as Americans, the current world population would need more than 5 planets to survive. For the purpose of this research, an acceptable definition would be “economic, social, and ecological development that is conducted without depletion of natural resources” (Baker, n.d.).

2.3 Defining Sustainable construction

The construction industry comprises all those people who contribute to the designing, building, and modification of the built environment, including material manufacturers, equipment suppliers, clients, and end-users. Therefore, sustainable construction can be defined as the “practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and deconstruction.” Even so, the definition still varies from region to region and keeps on evolving to take into account emerging approaches and priorities (Kibert, 2016).

2.4 Defining Green Engineering

In a very straightforward manner, green engineering can be viewed as the creation of healthy living environments by prudent use of natural resources, with conservation in mind. The emphasis on green engineering is the design of systems that have a positive impact on the environment. The college of Engineering at Virginia Tech defines green engineering as “a set of environmentally conscious attitudes, values, and principles, combined with science, technology, and engineering practice, all directed toward improving local and global environmental quality”. Whatever the definition we go by, the aspect of environmental conservation stands out. Some few years back, businesses would go on with production and release of products into the market, without much concern on the danger they posed to the environment, as long as they were getting their profits. As such, their production processes led to quite a lot of pollution of the environment through the release of wastes and wasteful use of resources. This trend however changed when the concerned stakeholders raised alarm over the negative impacts of such practices. Today, companies are under continuous scrutiny on whatever product they release. They are expected to make use of environmentally friendly processes that pose the least harm to the environment (Gou & Li, n.d.).

2.5 Characteristics of green engineering

The following five statements are true for all products and processes that make use of the principles of green engineering:

They fully value systems analysis

They make good use of environmental impact assessment tools

They preserve natural ecosystems for future use

They focus on the entire lifecycle as opposed to only the immediate application

They keep minimum the depletion of natural resources.

They recognize the local geography, aspirations, and cultures of the populace.

They go beyond the dominant technologies

They widely involve the entire community and other relevant stakeholders (Du & Lui, n.d.).

2.6 The 12 principles of green engineering

The 12 principles of green engineering present a definitive guide for scientists and engineers to follow when designing new products so that the negative effects to the environment and human health are minimized. Any process or product based on these 12 principles goes beyond the basics of engineering quality and safety guidelines to take into account the economic, ecological, and social factors. Paul T. Anastas from the University of Nottingham, United Kingdom, and Julie B. Zimmerman from the University of Michigan highlighted 12 principles of green engineering which have come to be widely adopted across the globe. Below is an outline of these 12 principles (Anastas & Zimmerman, 2007).

Principle 1

Inherent rather than circumstantial

Engineers need to ensure that the materials and energy sources they use for construction are naturally safe. Naturally hazardous materials and energy sources require a lot of investment in terms of time, capital, material, and energy use in order to minimize their negative effects on the environment and human health. According to the International Living Future Institute (2020), the most toxic building materials include lead, polyvinyl chloride, some wood treatments such as arsenic and coal-tar creosote, halogenated flame retardants, asbestos, cadmium, volatile organic compounds, silica, fiberglass, PCB caulking, and mercury. These can cause blood disorders, blindness, brain disorders, kidney damage, reproductive health challenges, birth defects, bronchitis, asthma, genetic mutations, diarrhea, hormone disruption, lung cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, liver damage, and eye and skin irritation, among others.

Principle 2

Prevention instead of treatment

It is easier and more beneficial to avoid the production of waste than making an effort to get rid of the waste after releasing it to the environment. Hazardous wastes require quite some huge investment to keep in check their spread. According to a recent report by the Transparency Market Research (2020), the volume of construction waste generated across the globe will reach the unthinkable high of 2.2 billion tons by the year 2025. The disposal of such humongous amounts of waste can turn out dangerous as was witnessed in Shenzhen China, where a pile of construction debris caused a landslide and killed more than 70 people and left over 900 people homeless, and destroyed apartments, houses and 33 factories.

Principle 3

Design for separation

In most manufacturing plants, the processes of product separation and purification have been noted as the largest consumers of energy, either in the form of solvents, pressure or heat. Self separation of products should be pursued. This makes use of their inherent physical and chemical traits, including solubility and volatility.

Principle 4

Maximize mass, energy, space, and time efficiency

Traditionally, a lot of processes and systems have been found to use more time, energy, material, and space above what is required. These can be labeled as inefficient. Engineers should ensure that all products and processes consume only the required amount of energy, material, space, and time.

Principle 5

Output-pulled versus input-pushed

The widely accepted method to increase output is through the addition of more energy and materials as output. This has been shown to result in excessive use of energy and materials. Engineers should design a system where the inputs are repeatedly minimized, and the process is pulled to finalization without having to add materials and energy in great amounts.

Principle 6

Conserve complexity

The degree of complexity invested in a given product is many times related to how much energy, time, and materials were used. Highly complex products should be reused rather than recycled. Glass is one example of complex construction material. The manufacturing process of glass is highly energy-consuming. Manufacturing 1 tonne of glass produces 8.39 tonnes of CO2. Recycling 1 tonne of glass produces 1.43 tonnes of CO2. (The Green Ration Book, 2020). It would be more sustainable to reuse glass products than to recycle them.

Principle 7

Durability rather than immortality

Products should not ideally last beyond their intended commercial life as this will cause pressure on the environment when they are disposed of. Instead, products should be designed to last for a specific lifespan, so that they cause no problem to the environment once they serve their lifetime. The use of construction dust netting is a good example (Dust Control Measures in the Construction Industry, 2003). The best brands of dust netting are made of biodegradable material. The nets are only used during the construction period. In many cases, by the time the construction project in question comes to an end, the nets may be unusable in other construction projects. Designing them as biodegradable is beneficial to the environment.

Principle 8

Meet need, minimize excess

Engineers have for long been overdesigning products such that they end up with unusable capacity based on the area of application. Products should not be entirely designed for the worst-case scenario as such conditions may not be experienced in given areas and time. Products should be locally tailored to meet the need at hand so that excessive use of resources is avoided. According to Bhatia (2016), construction firms have the habit of sizing products larger than is necessary. Both local and international consulting engineers are guilty of over-designing structures. Some projects have excessive amounts of reinforcement, more than is needed. Columns, beams, and slabs are given larger dimensions needed. Bhatia (2016) attributes this to over-reliance on structural engineering software models without performing the required checks and balances to verify the outputs from the different software. The consulting engineers also sometimes do not adjust the parameter settings in the models as is required. Over-designing is not only exhibited in the structural design. According to Bhatia (2016), overdesigning is also seen in mechanical, electrical, and plumbing elements. He further reports that the creation and implementation of local green building codes in Dubai has significantly reduced cases of over-designing.

Principle 9

Minimize material diversity

Products should not be designed using a wide array of materials and components. This poses a great problem when it comes time to recycle or reuse the product. Engineers should come up with designs that minimize material diversity but still meet the intended needs. In their paper titled Application of Bio-Inspired Design to Minimize Material Diversity, Nagel et. al. (2016) detail the biomimicry approach to design. According to them, bio-inspired design is one in which the patterns, forms, functions, and processes of nature are smartly manipulated to come up with engineering solutions. This way, the resultant products can easily be recycled. When the connection between form and function in nature is grasped, the production of sustainable products is possible. The paper states that the minimization of material diversity promotes recyclability.

Principle 10

Integrate material and energy flows

Engineers should design products and processes that make use of the present structure of energy and material sequence in a given manufacturing unit. This way, there will be no need to look for new energy sources and raw materials. Nagel et. al. (2016) gives the example of the backbone of water-diving birds. These are made up of intricately braided spine with parallel holes along each side. The holes are a great tool for absorbing shock and dispersing force. Such a biological form can be used to create a product using only one material yet able to perform multiple functions.

Principle 11

Design for the commercial afterlife

Many products reach their commercial end of life due to technological and aesthetical obsolescence, as opposed to a decline in their engineering properties. When such happens, the products should not necessarily be disposed of as a whole. Those components which are still functional can be recovered and used for other projects. Anthony (2018) highlights three instances in construction that utilize this principle. The first if is the conversion of old factories to housing, After a factory building has served its purpose, it can well be converted into a residential house instead of demolishing it. Secondly, given equipment can be disassembled and the components used in other equipment. Construction equipment like cranes should not be left to rot after they stop functioning. The compression and tension members should be unbolted and used in the assembly of other cranes. Lastly, Anthony highlights the process of the creation of “plastic lumber” from used polymeric packaging material (molecular reuse).

Principle 12

Renewable rather than depleting

The raw materials and energy inputs used for a given product or process should ideally be renewable rather than depleting. The use of depleting resources is not sustainable. Anthony (2018) proposes the use of solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, biomass, and hydrogen (fuel cells) in the construction industry.

2.7 Development of Green Engineering over the years

According to (Xiaoping, Huimin and Qiming, 2009), the concept of green engineering dates back to the early 1960s when the energy crisis was first witnessed and concerns for environmental pollution started rising. Authors such as Rachel Carson campaigned for green engineering through writing, specifically in her book titles Silent Spring. Naderi (2017) however argues that green engineering can be traced back to the earliest forms of civilization, as far back as 10,000 BC. People then were faced with the dangers of water and air pollution as society became more advanced. They needed access to clean water and environmentally sound disposal of waste and sewage. With such problems, the engineers of that time had to craft ways of handling construction and other activities in such a manner that their quality of life remains high. In recent years, several individuals and independent bodies have continued lobbying for green buildings. In 1990s, the following milestones were achieved as regards sustainability issues surrounding construction: formation of the American Institute of Architects (AIA), publication of the Environmental Resource Guide by AIA, launching of the ENERGY STAR program by EPA and the U.S. Department of Energy, introduction of the first local green building program in Austin Texas, founding of the U.S. Green Building Council, launching of the initiative dubbed Greening of the White House by the President Clinton administration, launching of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) by the US Green Building Council (Epa.gov, 2020). In the UK, the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREAM) was the first green engineering certification system to be established. This was in the year 1990. Moving on to 2009, Europe made a mandatory energy certification for all buildings measuring over 1,000 square meters. In other countries in the world, there also exist local authorities that regulate the construction of buildings to ensure they are green enough.

2.8 Application of the 12 principles of green engineering in practice

Decision making in engineering takes place throughout the lifecycle of the entire process. A range of models can be used in the study of the lifecycle for decision making. One such model chosen to be used has five stages:

Framing the requirements - It is often completed in a proof of concept, tends to be participative and qualitative.

Scoping the decision - Is made in a project definition study and is also participative and qualitative.

Planing and design - Is strategic and analytic, it involves decision making in the detailed design stage.

Implementation, delivery and operations - Is basically for managerial and quantitative purposes.

End of usable life

These five main stages provide guidance on how sustainable considerations and sustainable development approach to green engineering influence decision making in each stage. It is important to always keep contact with the requirements of the users and the stakeholders involved during the processes.

2.8.1 Framing the requirements

Framing the requirements involves defining the need or desired outcome. Framing is done by description of the issue or the problem to be solved in context. The outcomes of such a process are determined by means of a feasibility study, or may be done in the early stages of an absolute design process. According to the Engineering For Sustainable Development Report (2017), there is a need to carefully consider what to build and manufacture. The client needs recognition for the engineering design as it may not be able to accommodate a desired substantial leap in design.

2.8.2 Scoping the decision

This is the project definition stage. Significant effort is required in this stage on agreeing on the carefully constructed problems to be solved or challenges to be met. Aims and objectives of the project are arrived at for decisions to be made. Outcomes can be achieved through simple conclusions drawn from the early stages of an absolute design process or through a formal project definition study. In this stage, more design decisions are made with little consideration for sustainable development and fewer sustainability benefits accrue. However, there is great consideration for sustainable development later in the process.

2.8.3 Planning and design

Planning is the analytical process preceding action taking. It involves appraisal of the available options and creating objectives with a means of meeting them, while a detailed design involves the creation of solutions that meets all the diverse but connected requirements. It involves minimization of unfavourable environmental and social impacts where possible and the betterment of quality of life for the consumers, workers or stakeholders. This can present a challenge for engineering designers but if carefully executed can be beneficial to the society.

2.8.4 Implementation, delivery and operations

Implementation, delivery and design involves the practical realization of the design into. In this stage, earlier sustainable approaches are extremely vulnerable to overturning by unforeseen hindrances and resource constraints such as cost reduction measures.

2.8.5 End of usable life

There is increasingly important emphasis to recover valuable materials through careful cycling. All engineered processes or products have a design life span, the returning of resources for further use or re-absorption is a crucial element for sustainable development.

In this stage, the waste hierarchy must be put in mind:

Thinking of the opportunities for possible re-use

Maximizing practical opportunities for recycling

Consideration of destructive disposal

Recovery of the energy embodied in the material to be disposed, with disposal and landfill as a last resort.

Achievements on green engineering principles can be achieved based on how the products and systems have been designed with a sustainability perspective in mind. Designing more sustainable systems and products requires diverse sources of technological inspiration in this millenia of experience and tradition incorporating the discussed stages.

2.8 Summary

This chapter reviewed the literature pertaining to concepts of sustainability in construction and green engineering. The literature review established that, despite the many definitions of sustainability, the idea of conservation of natural resources is common to all of them. Engineers can make use of 12 solid principles to check whether their products and processes are green. The chapter that follows will detail the research methods that will be used in meeting the objectives of this study.

Chapter 3 Research Methods

In the previous chapter, a detailed review of past works on the concepts of sustainable construction and green engineering was highlighted. This chapter will detail the approach that will be used to realize the objectives of the study. The method chosen will as well be justified in this same chapter.

For the purpose of this research, three notable green buildings were identified to be used as the basis for the study. These are:

Humber College - Building NX in Toronto, Ontario

101 McNabb Street in Markham, Ontario,

Edelweiss project by Ecohome in Wakefield, Quebec.

For such a study, it is important to investigate the benefits of green engineering solutions for buildings with different uses. For instance, Building NX of Humber College is used by students and lecturers for study purposes. 101 McNabb Street is a commercial building hosting numerous offices and retail spaces. The Edelweiss project is a residential construction inhabited by a single-family. All these three engineering structures are in Canada, in the two cities of Ontario and Quebec. The country of Canada was particularly chosen because it is the leading country in the entire world in terms of the rate of adoption of green engineering solutions.

The following 2 methods will be used to collect data for the three case studies

3.1 Direct observation

High quality images of the three buildings will be sourced from the internet. A visual observation will be carried out on each of the buildings to identify the elements of green engineering applied in the construction of the buildings. This will be further supported by architectural and structural drawings of the buildings as presented in different publications.

3.3 Secondary sources

Written reviews of the three buildings shall be analyzed to obtain technical information that cannot be seen by the eye. The targeted reviews are of two kinds. The first is reviews by experts in the field of architecture and engineering, which are published in journals, magazines, and other publications. Secondly, reviews by actual occupants of the building will also be sourced from online forums.

3.4 Overall analytical framework for the case study

Introduction

This portion presents the overall analytical framework for the case study research. The main methodological requirement in this thesis involves 3 case studies of green buildings in Canada. This will be achieved through a mixed-method design that employs both qualitative and quantitative methods, including content analysis, architectural analysis, and visual observation. According to Yin, there are three conditions that justify the use of case studies by the researcher. These are: i) when the nature of the research question is typically explanatory, exploratory, or descriptive, or those structured with a “why” or “how”, ii) when the investigator lacks methods to control the site and participants, and iii) when the phenomenon being studied is contemporary and the context is real-life. As it was revealed in the literature review, green engineering is currently practiced across the globe. It is a real-life subject that confronts both builders and clients. Also, the researcher, in this case, cannot personally control the site and participants. This research involves the determination of cost implications of setting up green buildings. It is beyond the reach of the researcher to put up a green structure for the purpose of the study. That would be extremely costly and time-consuming. Finding real-time occupants of the building so as to measure the energy consumption of the buildings is also somewhat unachievable. For these reasons, the use of the case study is justifiable in meeting the objective of the study, of which the main one is analyzing the profitability of Green Engineering solutions. The conditions for the choice of the case study as the most appropriate approach are summarized in Table 1 below:

One key strength of a case study is the ability to collect data from several sources for triangulation. According to Mathison, triangulation is the use of several methods and sources of data by researchers to improve the validity of research findings. With triangulation, the three key possible outcomes are convergence, inconsistency, and contradiction. These three can be used by the researcher to explain and theorize the researched phenomenon. For instance, in the current case study involving the profitability of green engineering solutions, construction cost and energy use data can be triangulated with extra data of direct visual observations of the design components of the building and the opinion of builders and clients. This way, data triangulation provides varied participant perspectives, which helps the researcher to identify the challenges faced in the implementation of green engineering solutions.

Direct observation method

This involves the observation of events informants are sometimes unable or unwilling to share. Researchers are able to check for non-verbal expression of feelings and grasp how participants interact and communicate with each other. According to DeWALT and DeWALT (2002), the goal for research for design using participant observation as a method is to develop a holistic understanding of the phenomena under study that is as objective and accurate as possible given the limitations of the method. Direct observations increase the validity of this study as observations help the researcher have a better understanding of the phenomena under study. The validity becomes even stronger with the use of additional strategies such as interviews, use of questionnaires or other quantitative methods. DeWALT and DeWALT (2002) further suggests that in order to determine whether to use observation as a data collection method, one must consider:

The site under study

The question types guiding the study

Opportunities available at the site for observation

Representativeness of the participants of the population at that site

Strategies to be used for data recording and analysis

BENARD (1994) lists the following reasons for including direct observation in exploratoryl studies, all of which increase the study’s validity:

It makes it possible to collect different data types

It reduces the incidences of people reacting in a certain way when they are aware that they are being observed

It helps the researcher develop questions that make sense

It gives the researcher a better understanding of what is happening, enabling them to collect both qualitative and quantitative data through surveys and interviews

It is sometimes the only way to correct the right data for one’s study

Secondary sources of information

Secondary data is data collected by individuals or agencies for purposes other than those for our particular research study. For instance, if an environmental organisation conducts a research on the profitability of green engineering this data might be profitable to engineers in implementing environmentally conscious improvements during constructions. No marketing research should be done without prior search of existing secondary sources relevant to the study. There are several grounds for making such a bold statement:

Secondary data may be available which is entirely appropriate or adequate to draw conclusions and solve the problem, primary data may not be necessary.

It is cheaper to collect secondary data as compared to primary data.

Less time is required in the collection of secondary data as compared to primary data collection

Secondary data can yield more accurate information as compared to data obtained through primary research.

Secondary sources of information help define the population.

3.4.1 Research setting

This thesis focuses on three case studies of the successful application of green engineering solutions. The three buildings selected for the case study are Humber College - Building NX in Toronto, Ontario; 101 McNabb Street in Markham, Ontario; and Edelweiss project by Ecohome in Wakefield, Quebec. All these three are located in Canada. Back in 2002, the Canadian Green Building Council was formed in the shadows of the US Green Building Council, which had been formed earlier on in the early 1990s. The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design program (LEED) is credited for uplifting Canada to the top position globally in regards to green engineering. LEED is driven by a deeply knowledgeable team of experts that work around the clock to develop and fine-tune the green rating tools. Indeed, thousands of professionals are involved in coming up with the rating system. No other rating system in the entire world exhibits such a degree of effort. As of now, LEED has a global presence, with more than 140 countries embracing it. Canada currently has the largest number of LEED-certified and LEED-registered buildings in the world. Canada is on a tight competition with the US as regards LEED certification. Thomas Mueller, the founding director of the Canadian Green Building Council attributes Canada’s success to the close location to the US, where LEED certification originated. He also mentions the fact that Canada does not regulate the construction sector very stringently like some countries in Europe (Barnes, 2016). To demystify the misconceptions surrounding green engineering solutions, it would be appropriate to examine particular cases in such a country where the concept has been largely adopted. Three buildings were chosen to cover the most common types of buildings in the world. These are residential buildings, educational (special use) buildings and commercial buildings. For the residential building, the Edelweiss project was selected. For the commercial building, the 101 McNabb Street building was chosen. For the educational building, the Building NX of Humber college was chosen.

3.4.2 The Edelweiss Project

The Edelweiss project was the first project in the whole of Canada to earn the LEED v4 certification. Even more interesting, it was the second in the world to attain the rigorous Platinum level for LEED v4. The home is owned by one Emmanuel Cosgrove, a LEED member. The construction was supervised by Mike Reynolds, one of the Green Raters of LEED. LEED v4 is the latest version of the LEED green building. This new version is even more specialized and it is crafted for seamless user experience. LEED has been operational from way back in 1998. The v4 of LEED guidelines borrows much from the previous guidelines. The predecessor to the LEED v4 was the LEED 2009. The Edelweiss home is located in the Gatineau Hills in Wakefield, Quebec, a 40 minutes drive from downtown Ottawa. It is a single-story residential home whose size matches an average Canadian townhome. The home spans 1552 square feet.

3.4.3 101 McNabb Street Building

The 101 McNabb Street building is located in Markham, Ontario. It was awarded the gold certification under LEED v4. The building is owned by Op Trust Office Inc. Crown Property Management Inc was in charge of the development of the building. The construction of the building came to a completion in 1982. The building spans 315,000 square feet. It is three stories high. Initially, it was a single user facility. It has since been renovated into a multi-tenant complex with fitness facilities, cafeteria, bank, and a motor dealer as the main tenants. It now houses about 3,000 professionals from TD Bank and general Motors Canada.

3.4.3 Building NX of Humber College

Building NX is part of the North Campus of Humber College in Toronto. It is credited as being the first retrofit building in Canada to achieve a Zero Carbon Building (ZCB). This is a design certification from the Canada Green Building Council. The building was originally built in the year 1989. Standing five stories high and spanning 4,487 square meters, the building would get chilly cold during winter and scorching hot during summer. At that time, the administrative staff of the college had its offices in the building. The college received funding to help it reduce GHG emissions. The NX building was earmarked for retrofitting. It is now labeled as one of the most energy-efficient buildings in North America.

3.5 Summary

This chapter justified the method chosen to attain the goals of the research. The use of the case study was shown to be the most appropriate tool for such kind of research. The chapter that follows will present the findings of the research.

Chapter 4 Results

The previous chapter established that the case study is the most appropriate tool for this research. Three buildings in Canada were chosen for the case study in order to examine the profitability of green engineering solutions. This chapter presents the findings of the research.

3.1 Case 1 - The Edelweiss project in Wakefield, Quebec

3.1.1 List of green engineering solutions used in the project

About half the heat required in the Edelweiss home comes through passive heating through the windows. In addition to passive heating, the home makes use of a hydronic radiant floor and an air source heat pump. The hydronic radiant floor heating system ensures that the occupants are saved from feeling cold underfoot. The building envelope consists mainly of FSC-certified framing lumber. The ceiling of the house is built of logs reclaimed from the neighbouring Ottawa River. The Silestone Cosentino Eco Line quartz kitchen countertop is made of 75% post-consumer material. This includes 400 broken cups and plates, 60 bottles, and broken mirrors. The Edelweiss home is designed to save up to 60% in water consumption every month through the use of low-flow plumbing systems. This translates to about 13,000 litres of water monthly, and 156,000 litres of water annually. In addition to this, the home features a high zero-energy high performance septic waste water treatment system. The house is designed to charge an electric car for a 67km trip, without incurring any additional electricity costs. The house features cork flooring which is highly environmentally friendly. The interior doors are of the sandblasted antique type. The floor of the bathroom and walls of the shower are fitted with locally sourced slate. For some portions, lightweight synthetic gypsum drywall is used. This is majorly composed of recycled materials. Mineral-wool insulation is used under the ceiling and under the slab. Lighting is fully LED. All paints and adhesives used to finish the interior contain no volatile organic compounds. The roof is a DIY creation using local plants. The windows are fitted with triple glazing. The window frames are argon filled wooden frames. To the south of the building, a number of deciduous trees have been planted to ensure that the house does not receive excessive solar radiation during the summer months. During winter, the lower position of the sun makes it possible for solar radiation to heat up the concrete floor. The residual heat stored in the concrete is slowly released at night, and therefore the nights never get extremely cold. The walls of the house are entirely air-sealed to allow for even more conservation of heat within the house. The Edelweiss home is supplied with utility power from hydro sources in Quebec. Hydrogen stated electricity is sustainable as it uses water. The house does not use any form of fossil fuel.

3.1.2 Construction costs

The Edelweiss project cost slightly over CAD$ 300,000 to build to completion. This is an equivalent of about 220,000 USD. The cost per square foot is therefore 190 CAD or 144 USD. It is however worthwhile to note that the owner spent quite some time on the air sealing details, but his wages are not included in the total cost.

3.1.3 Energy consumption

The Edelweiss home was designed to house a family of 5. When fully occupied, computer software models predict that this house consumes about 24.6kwh of electricity every day. By calculation, the green home costs only $1.39 every day to run. This cost is based on the current electricity rates stipulated by Quebec Hydro. For the 365 days in a typical year, electricity costs add up to only 507 CAD or 385 USD. With the charging of the electric car included, the total energy costs for the building comes to only $2.19 every day.

The PSI rating for the Edelweiss home is 15 kWh/m2.

Below is a gallery of images showing some of the green engineering features of the Edelweiss project.

3.2 Case 2 - The 101 McNabb Street Building in Markham, Ontario, Canada - (1000 words)

3.2.1 List of green engineering solutions used in the project

The building makes use of off-site renewable energy credits, which offsets 100 % of energy use. Many private establishments that can’t invest in their own solar panels or wind turbines purchase green energy credits. These credits represent renewable energy resources associated with power production. When certified, they become eligible for renewable energy certificates (RECs). This energy can be sold, bartered or traded. These green energy credits represent the source of the energy produced. Renewable energy certificates are similar to carbon emissions except instead of trading tons of avoided carbon, kilowatt hours are traded. For RECs, the green energy credits represent electricity produced using environmentally friendly processes and the certificate is sold to a third party company. The building features low-flow water fixtures which have resulted in a reduction of 37% regarding water usage. Water saving plumbing fixtures provide the homeowner with significant savings on their water bill and offer a sustainable eco-friendly measure in their remodelling or construction project. Low flow fixtures such as toilets, showerheads, faucets and aerators provide the same utility as compared to non-low-flow fixtures. The government of Canada set national standards for the flowrate of plumbing fixtures. Water conservation and sustainability has been enhanced since the enforcement of the act. There has also been significant improvements in plumbing fixtures over the years. Some states provide rebates to consumers who replace plumbing with low-flow fixtures. The building features outdoor air ventilation that meets ASHRAE 62.1-2007 requirements. Outdoor air ventilation is a key component of better Indoor Air Quality (IAQ). It operates on the concept of separating indoor air with outdoor air. These measures combined with an airtight building envelope are smart choices for optimal health. The building envelope is the primary boundary between indoors and outdoors. It includes the air barrier, thermal barrier and often the weather barrier. As a system, it offers resistance to soil gases, outdoor temperatures, sunlight, noise, and water. This boundary is the most important system in a home. As an important health matter, all new construction should include outdoor air ventilation. All fluorescent exterior lights were replaced with LEDs. This led to much lower energy consumption and zero mercury risk. Fluorescent lights are relatively cheap to purchase but relatively expensive to maintain. They need to be purchased several times and the labour cost needs to be paid in order to attain the equivalent lifespan of a single LED light. On the other hand, LED lighting has relatively high initial costs and low lifetime costs. The technology of LED lighting pays the investor over time. This is primarily from reduced maintenance cost over time and energy efficiency improvements. LED lighting systems also produce a very narrow spectrum of visible light without the losses to irrelevant radiation types such as UV, meaning that most of the energy consumed by the light source is converted directly into visible light.

The heating boiler pumps installed in the building are intermittently operated. According to a recent report published by the department of energy, operating and maintenance practices are the greatest factors affecting overall system efficiency. A great deal of energy is normally wasted when the heating equipment is poorly maintained or improperly operated. Calcium carbonate build up in tank type heaters, dirty burner tips and short cycling are just some of the many culprits that rob the system of overall efficiency. The energy lost to each individual may be small but the cumulative energy loss can be staggering. Properly maintaining and intelligently operating heating and cooling equipment can help reduce energy costs by up to 80%. The building was installed with filters that have a minimum efficiency reporting value (MERC) of 13 and entryway mats to mitigate IAQ contaminants. 56 % of all regularly occupied floor space offers a good outdoor view. Many employees cite exposure to natural light as a sure motivator to increasing productivity. The tenants have an exclusive shutting service to transit hubs. This reduces the carbon footprint of the building and promotes a healthier environment. The building has a parking ratio of 5:1 parking stalls per 1,000 square feet, with a total of 1,609 parking stalls. The building is strategically located between Highway 407 and steeles Avenue. From here, the tenants can directly access the bus or the GO train. Within a 10 minute radius, the building is surrounded by over 200 restaurants, 8 hotels, 2 fitness centres, 20 banks, and 6 major grocery stores. The building is powered by two separate electricity feeds from two separate power grids. Each is rated 27.5 kW. In addition to this, 3 diesel backup generators are installed. These have a total capacity of 4,000 kVA and uninterrupted power system of 1,000 kWA. The generator is connected to a 33,000 litres diesel tank. Running alone, it can power up the entire building for 88 hours. These installations make the building have second-to-none business continuity capabilities. No business ever stalls because of power failure. The diesel generators have been able to save costs up to 3.84 million USD. The UPS features saves up to 1.98 million USD. For fire and life safety, the building is fitted with a combined sprinkler and standpipe system throughout the building. The tenants make use of low power equipment. The building provides 66 solar-powered electric vehicle charging stations for GM’s Canadian technical Centre, and in addition a private shuttle service to transit hubs. The building’s indoor environmental quality is great. The building makes use of green cleaning practices. MERV 13 filters and entryway mats have been installed to keep indoor air quality contaminants at bay. The rental spaces within the building are adequately bright and open. The ceiling height is kept to a minimum of 9 feet. Columns are spaced at a minimum of 30 ft centre-to-centre. In general, the occupant density is 125 square feet per person.

3.2.3 Energy Consumption

The McNabb Street Building was specifically certified due to its strong energy performance. The building boasts of the impressive energy use intensity (EUI) of 23.7 eKWh per square foot. This earned it an ENERGY star score of 86. Compared to the original building’s EUI, the current rating is a reduction of a whole 45%. Below is an image gallery highlighting some of the green engineering features of the 101 McNabb Building.

3.3 Case 3 - Building NX of Humber College in Toronto

3.3.1 List of green engineering solutions used in the project

The building envelope was given a complete retrofit. It is the first retrofit in Canada to achieve a Zero Carbon Building (ZCB) design certification. Having been constructed back in 1989, the building could get very cold in winter and very hot in summer. For this reason, a retrofit project was undertaken to upgrade both the building envelope and the systems. The original aluminium curtain walls, spandrel panels, as well as glass vestibule were replaced to achieve the thermal energy performance requirements of Canada’s Green Building Council new Zero Carbon Standard. The entire wall was taken off and rebuilt. Building NX now has 14-inch thick walls that include a metal stud and four other inches of spray foam insulation in an interior cavity. Additionally, thermal clips were attached to the outside face of the building. Mineral wool insulation was also added to the building to an incredible 8 inches thick. The building was made considerably airtight by sealing all possible air entries by an ultra-high performance skin. A number of engineered transitions were also included to prevent escape of heat especially at wall-to-window points, wall-to-wall points, and wall-to-roof points. The foundation was also dug out and insulated. The old windows were replaced with new super-performance windows to improve energy efficiency. The building now features triple-pane windows. An air-source Variable Refrigerant Flow system was used to replace the water source VRF recovery system. The air-source VRF is more advantageous since it recovers and transfers heat between zones by exchanging heat with the ambient air instead of the water-loop of the system. Regarding temperature consistency across the building, the entire old heating system was removed and two new air-cooled VRF heat pumps were installed on the fifth floor. In addition, fan-coil units were installed for each thermal zone. The refrigerant runs in lines to the fan coils for ventilation. In summer, the same system removes heat to the outside. This way, the building is never heated and cooled at the same time. Initially, the north entrance used to be exceptionally cold during winter. To counter this, an electric radiant flooring system was installed. The air handlers that were installed on the roof were done away with. This has reduced the bulkiness that was characteristic of the old system. Whereas the old ducts were 14 inches in diameter, the new ducts are about 6 inches in diameter. The college staff now boast of ideal temperatures during both summer and winter. Daylight is also sufficient enough for the employees to work. A skylight was fitted to the roof to improve daylighting of the building. The lighting system for NX Building was upgraded by installing the OSRAM ENCELIUM EXTEND Light Management System. This includes sensors which communicate data to help the system run more efficiently. Of importance is the occupancy sensors which ensure that lights stay on only when the room in question is in use.

The building was also fitted with a new photovoltaic system mounted to the roof. This is expected to produce about 31,500 kWh annually. This is more energy than the building needs at certain times of the year. The excess energy is redirected to the central plant in the college.

3.3.3 Energy consumption

After the comprehensive retrofitting project, Building NX of Humber college now uses 70 % less energy than before. As such, it is the most energy efficient building in the entire Humber College, as well as the entire continent of North America. The heating energy used for the building is estimated at less than 5% of the total building energy use. For average buildings in Canada, the heating energy normally sums up to 50% of the total energy use in the building, and so the NX Building is extremely energy efficient. The building’s projected annual energy use is 64kWh/m2. Below is a collection of images showing the various green engineering features of the building.

3.4 Summary

This chapter presented the findings of the research. For each case study, the green engineering solutions are first highlighted. The costs involved in construction are then outlined. Finally, typical energy consumption figures are presented. The next chapter presents a detailed discussion on the profitability of green engineering solutions, based on the research findings outlined in this chapter.

Chapter 5 Discussion

The previous chapter presented findings from the 3 case studies. The green engineering aspects of the 3 buildings were listed, together with the construction costs and daily operational costs. This chapter attempts to answer the research question as to whether the use of green engineering solutions is profitable for both the clients and builders. From the findings in the previous chapter, it is clearly evident that green engineering solutions are not overly expensive as suspected by many builders and clients. Starting with the Edelweiss project, the overall construction cost was only 144 USD per square foot. According to HomeGuide (2020), the average cost of building a house is between 100 and 155 USD per square foot. The average total comes to about USD 248,000. This is for an average house. Low end houses cost up to USD 178,000. And if modern or custom designs are used, the costs can go up to USD 310,000. High-end houses cost up to USD 416,000. The Edelweiss project can be termed high-end owing to its standards. Surprisingly, it cost only 220,000 USD to construct. This is quite a saving, given it is a green house. The cost of installing the other green engineering features is equally affordable. The table below shows the average cost of installing some of the green engineering features.

The costs of operation are also significantly lower than that for non-energy efficient buildings. For instance, the Edelweiss home costs only USD 1.39 every day to run, which translates to about 385 USD per year. According to Energy Hub (2020), the average canadian home spends about 3,500 USD to keep the energy going in their home. 385 is way much less compared to 3,500. For the McNabb Street Building, the Energy Use Intensity is 23.7 eKWh per square foot. According to the Energy Benchmarking Report for Canada, the mean actual energy use intensity for commercial buildings is about 33.0 ekWh per square foot. The McNabb Street Building therefore saves a lot of money in terms of energy use. Building NX of Humber College boasts an energy use of 64kWh/m2 per year. According to the Natural Resources Canada Report (2014), the average energy use for college buildings is 244 kWh/m2. Building NX therefore saves a lot in regards to energy.

Chapter 6 Conclusion and Recommendations

This chapter lists conclusions arrived at from the findings of the research. Recommendations on possible future research projects is also made.

6.1 Conclusion

The following conclusions can be drawn from the findings of the current research:

Green engineering solutions comprise items that are well known to builders and clients, and not complex systems as usually perceived by different stakeholders in construction projects.

Houses and buildings that implement green engineering solutions are not overly cost-prohibitive as perceived by many. It has been shown that constructing a green residential house can end up being cheaper than average non-energy efficient house.

Retrofitting of existing buildings can significantly reduce the energy use in buildings, and therefore generate great cost savings in the long run.

Green Engineering Solutions considerably save the energy costs of running buildings

Buildings with green engineering features generally consume less energy than the traditional buildings.

6.2 Recommendations

In light of the above conclusions, it is recommended that:

More campaigns should be set up to sensitize the various stakeholders in the construction sector on green engineering and its benefits.

Sustainability issues should be explained in simple terms so that it does not appear as a very difficult goal to achieve.

Construction of evidently non-energy efficient buildings should be outlawed so as to help win the battle against excessive energy consumption in buildings.

Local authorities should see to it that old buildings undergo retrofitting to improve their energy efficiency as this will save operations costs in the long run.

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