Rainwater Runoffs and Urban Impact
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
A season of rains is most welcome in most parts of the world, but in some of the cities like London, rainwater cause runoffs that can be damaging if precautions are not put in place. The worst moments are when storms continue for some time making the ground saturated as it fails to absorb more water. The runoffs can amount to floods in some cases, which are likely to sweep away available structures in the city. In London, the common runoffs are witnessed taking their way to Thames River before hitting the Great Lakes. The chapter sets the thesis in motion while delving into the subject of storm water management as reviewed in both the historical and environmental context. The research is essentially an interdisciplinary that incorporates different knowledge areas in which the case study is positioned. The chapter provides the background details linked to the research topic, the scope and research questions that carry the content of the research. Besides, the constitution of the research problem and justification provides the research gap that makes this research more relevant.
1.1 Background of the study
In the enlightenment era, the authorities and the society brought in the idea of urban drainage and storm water management. In the early 19th century, River Thames contained relatively clean water with few cases of the impact of storm water and sewage disposal noted for over 200 years. Within the period, history pays a close attention to the two attributes witnessed in the Thames River on the south-western side of Ontario that had a population of approximately 350000 people. The river has historically been sampled out as the key evidence to extreme floods and storm water runoffs recorded since the year 1791. Measures considered in 1950s saw the fruitful construction of dikes and dams that has served as a big deal in controlling major flooding in London. However, before such measures came into play, the floods of the year 1883 are said to have led to immense damage to properties as well as businesses. The incident led to the death of 17 people, which I something that prompted the municipality to construct dikes to contain the damage. With such measures put in place, the same incident appeared in 1937 where the river rose above 7 meters, which destroyed a whopping total of 1100 homes leading to the death of 5 people. The consistent floods spread through to 1947 thereby prompting the city to construct three more dams as one way of protecting the community against the unpredictable Thames River. The dikes and dams have been thought to be a better deal in proving defensive mechanism in subsequent incidents that appeared in 1977, 1986, 1997 as well as 2000. Based on the findings by Gasper et al. (2011) in the study of “Social and economic impacts of climate change on the urban environment”, indicated that cities are moving towards ecological approaches with London gaining a milestone towards stormwater management. However, this is never possible without setting out the long term strategy. For instance, a series of case studies indicate the London considered the remediation as well as restoration of the Stoney Creek. The major goal of the remediation revolved around the fundamentality of supporting the stormwater runoffs from the immediate residential and commercial development. Other researches and case studies incorporated by Gasper et al. (2011) indicate that remediation strategies have constantly been put under check for the purposes of minimizing incidents of bank erosion, as well as stormwater runoff volumes.
In addition, the checks consistently observe both the ecological and the geomorphological functions of the engineering services and the adaptation strategies. Subsequent collaboration of the London’s adaptation strategy indicates the essence of the combination of the municipal authorities and the specialists said to have established the engineering standards in regards to establishing the stormwater management system. While the measures are kept under check, other studies indicate that the society is developing better urban centres that can affect the stability of the urban drainage system and the stormwater runoffs. Butler and Davies (2003) indicated that urban drainage is one of the challenges witnessed in the modern environmental context. The systems call for technical improvements and frequent assessments of the sustainable solutions. While cities continue to grow through setting up of more buildings, such a growth is proved detrimental to the stormwater runoffs, which can have severe impact if not controlled. A series of constructed sites creates artificial surfaces as indicated by Butler and Davies (2003). Such artificial surfaces would end up interfering with the natural cycle of water and natural processes believed to control the infiltration and evaporation processes. The man-made surfaces increases chances of stormwater runoffs compared to the natural surfaces, which takes good care of the ecological system. This means that increase in the number of buildings in the urban centres can lead to cases of sudden flooding and rapid runoffs, which are likely to be more destructive in return. Studies incorporated in the book authored by Butler and Davies (2003) further indicates that there has been a close association between public health and urban drainage. However, the association has always been overlooked in most of the modern practices. The association of water and diseases came in the spotlight through the studies engaged by Dr John Snow as he reviewed the cholera epidemic that swept numbers in the city. The nature of drainage system and accumulation of stormwater has been cited as the prime cause to the cholera epidemics or outbreaks noted in 1848-1849, 1854 as well as 1867. The incident killed thousands of the Londoners, which prompted Edwin Chadwick to work on the dual system of drainage. Perhaps, the fights for better systems that can remedy the environmental challenges have been provoked by the adverse effects of stormwater accumulation. Chadwick indicated that nature has its own way of regulating the natural processes. The intrusion of man-made structures is simply an increase in the number of blockages to waterways underneath the soil profile. The efforts noted in 1950s and 1960s saw researchers working on the CSO design, which stood out as an innovative new arrangement. Drainage engineers in United Kingdom worked on major changes in 1990s which saw a reorganization of the industry in Wales and England. Apparently, the application of gradual changes in the stringent pollution regulations serves as a reminder to the new millennium initiatives meant to curb the problem of stormwater and the impact it has on the normal life patterns.
Across all the case studies, the imminent measures fail to prove a track of the preliminary strategies brought out by the designers and researchers. Perhaps, construction of better and durable dams and dikes does not substantiate into sustainable solutions. Such dams and dikes are currently seen as one way of moving the flooding problems to the next city with unstable infrastructure. Based on this, there has been a research gap in terms of understanding the impact of practices and activities on stormwater management in London. The requisite review delves into realization of the sustainable efforts put in place by the government and other stakeholders who are interested in retaining the natural landscape. The research gap has been noted as a result of the consistent measures considered by designers without factoring the challenges caused by previous systems. The gap is a milestone for this research as it looks for the meaningful grounds on which key stakeholders can take note of the effects of stormwater in London, while downplaying the custom of constructing better and stronger dikes and dams. The latter bears a history of failure, which has led to loss of lives and destruction of properties that belong to thousands of people within and without London.
1.2 Research problem and justification
The significant growth of the urban centres and the expansion of London and its outskirts informs on imminent problems and destructive stormwater runoffs and disrupted waterways. The explosion of the unplanned development patterns and extension of buildings on the riparian areas informs on an encroaching danger of environmental problems. The problems include extreme floods and stormwater runoffs, or extended periods of droughts which can inconvenience the normal ecological system. Epidemics of Thames River in London have seen a series of episodes of loss of homes and properties as observed in the background of the study. The hazards that engulfed London beyond 1950s has been an awakening call to researchers and authorities. While investments done before focused on immediate solutions such as driving water off the roads and construction of better dikes and dams, the solution has never been durable enough to offer assurance to future generations. The traditional purpose of the previous of the drainage system in the previous case was to remove water on the surface such as the roads and many other places. The wiped water is normally driven through pipes and the watercourses while protecting people and property. The problem with such immediate solutions is they never support a sustainable course and they substantially impede the process of nurturing sustainable cities. Perhaps, construction of better dams, dikes and pipe system is not a solution to severe runoffs. Both the authorities and researchers have continuously failed to understand the fallibility of the modern designs in solving the problem of stormwater runoffs. The lack of this understanding has led to repeated mistakes overtime with huge expenditures driven to similar projects that were done 50 years ago. While London offers a better case study, the floods and runoffs witnessed in 1990s are extremely severe compared to the ones witnessed in 1880s. Such an observation informs on a bigger problem that just the issue of driving water off the roads and fields. The problem, therefore, revolves around the understanding of the benefits of a sustainable city served with a greener approach of solving the problems of the stormwater runoffs and the drainage system.
A track of the history of the life in London has seen development of initiatives, defence mechanism and remedies to the growing problem of extreme floods and accumulation of stormwater. However, such measures have rarely informed on the background of the problem at hand. Perhaps, a revisit of the background of stormwater management should inform on the problems that lead to extreme runoffs during the storms. Even with better tunnels and pipe system in place, the natural water seepage is thought to be the best and reserves the natural control of the drainage system while striking an ecological balance. The modern era is led towards realization of the importance of green cities and why measures towards developing such can lead to sustainable urban planning. This informs on the fundamental need of observing the development practices of the stormwater management in London and its outskirts. The scope leads to examination of the effects of excessive stormwater on most of the urban resources such as the prevailing drainage structure, roads and even businesses established in the urban centres. Besides, the scope finds needs of assessing the severity of the impact on a number of parties and efforts in developing mitigating measures. The understanding can also be addressed by exploring problems, risk factors and reasons related to stormwater in London. This is likely to inform on factors that need to be considered while developing strategies and measures to be engaged while addressing the key issue of stormwater management and regulation of stormwater discharge. While such efforts can be introduced by the private partners, it is always important to recognize the importance of the government as well as the initiatives it has laid out.
1.3 Research Questions
While the study tries to bring out the understanding of the practices behind stormwater management in London, the research process is set to answer the following questions.
What are the impacts of stormwater on the urban resources and the nature of destruction caused by runoffs?
Which parties or groups are affected by stormwater?
What are some of the sustainable mitigating measures that can be put in play to regulate the impact of stormwater?
How do risk factors related to reasons and problems that lead to stormwater runoffs in London and its outskirts?
What are some of the natural and structural factors that can be considered when working on structures that can control the stormwater discharge?
What are some of the sustainable measures the government has invested in to contain the problem of stormwater?
1.4 Aim of the study
The main of the study is to facilitate the understanding of the effects of development activities and practices behind stormwater management in London. This means that the study has to look at the history of measures that have been considered in the past, and their fallibility in the course of establishing a durable drainage system. The study will also invest in the sustainable course and whether the undertaking is of benefit to the future generations as well. This means that a display of the history will provide support to the findings behind episodes of floods witnessed in London, especially the ones that inform on the occurrences in the Thames River. The understanding of the practices and activities will also look into whether some of the practices can be adopted in developing a greener and better city.
1.5 Research objectives
The main aim outlined in the above section can be broken down into significant areas that amount to the following objectives. These include:
To examine the impact of excessive storm water on urban resources like infrastructure and business
To determine the most affected parties and mitigating measures that can be put in place
To explore problems, reasons and risk factors related to storm water in London
To examine factors that are considered when developing structures meant to control storm water discharge
To highlight significant measures to be implemented by government for storm water management
1.6 Outline of the Research
The study will be divided into six chapters that will focus on different areas of the research. Chapter one focuses on introduction, which expounds on the background of the study, the research problem, justification, research question, aims of the study and the objectives meant to address the subject topic. Chapter two of the research looks at the literature review, which informs on the relevant case studies attached to the research topic in question. Some of the case studies include a history of the stormwater runoffs and floods in London, the severe effects of stormwater as well as the sustainable measures that can be considered by the government and other stakeholders. Chapter three constitutes the methodology, where the research specifies a collection of methods that run the research process. Some of the areas under this chapter include the research philosophy, approach of the study, the research method and strategy, data collection methods and tools of data analysis. Chapter four includes the findings and analysis while chapter five focuses on the discussion, which expounds on the research findings by relating them to different case studies. The last chapter includes the conclusions and recommendations depending on the themes established from the findings.
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The literature review is substantially a scholarly paper that incorporates the current knowledge as well as substantive findings connected to the research topic. The review further incorporates the theoretical as well as methodological contributions made towards the research topic. In this case, the review incorporates significant case studies that track the history of stormwater management and the drainage systems in London and its outskirts. This also attracts potential findings on the measures that inform on the need to address the problem of stormwater runoffs in London and its outskirts.
2.2 A history of stormwater runoffs in London and early initiatives
A history of the stormwater runoffs and floods in London has attracted the attention of the world over the years. Butler and Davies (2003) indicated that floods in London keep increasing on annual basis. The recent times has witnessed severe and frequent storms that amount to quantities of water runoffs. The history of stormwater attracts the nature and changes that occur along Thames River. London squarely sits on the Thames River Basin Catchment that covers an area of approximately 16200 square kilometres. The land capacity can hold over 15 million people. The Thames basin involves water sources such as coastal waters, rivers, groundwater and lakes as well. Therefore, possible seepages of the sewage system have a direct impact on the catchment area that breaths live to millions of Londoners. The history of London and the drainage system dates back over 7000 years BC where the primitive systems had a trivial impact on the environment. With time, people have been flocking the streets of London with a population of one million realized in the year 1817. Gasper et al. (2011) indicate that slight increases in the number of people in the urban centres, especially London, led to the realization of the importance of the drainage system. In the 1850s, Butler and Davies (2003) indicates that River Thames not only incidents of flooding but also the odour was beyond any form of endurance. Gasper et al. (2011) further explored study in London and the adaptation strategy that was realized with time. Since 1820, key players in the city of London foresaw a big problem that touched on the tributaries connected to Thames River that touched on the key basins believed to impact the runoffs and water seepage. The records of extreme floods started in the year 1791, which compelled the municipality to construct dikes and dams said to have completed in the 1950s. Purseglove (2015) indicates that the history of London attracts both the achievements and failures of taming floods for relative long period of time. While the efforts were seen shaping in 1791, the floods of the year 1883 disapproved the artificial measures in containing the hazards. The floods and the stormwater runoffs caused severe damages to properties and business. In addition, the storm swept 17 lives, which compelled the city to hasten the construction of dikes. While dikes and dams were seen as convenient means of containing the runoffs, the 1937 incident swept a total of 1100 homes and businesses and consumed a total of five people. The history of River Thames is the history of London with more observations made in the way the river has affected the growth of the urban centres from 1965 to 2001. Climatic data collected overtime indicate that the structures and poor urban planning are cited as the potential factors that have disrupted the normal hydrological cycle, which seem to encounter extreme losses or excess water volumes that impedes discharge. Perhaps, the historic dikes and dams may not assure the sustainability of the city with regards to stormwater and its effects.
2.2 The impacts of stormwater on the urban resources in London
Storms serve as the key source of water for livelihood. However, the increase in terms of volumes of stormwater realized on annual basis has raised an alarm. Lundy et al. (2017) focused on a case study of the human interactions with stormwater and how this has destroyed some of the urban resources. First, the volume of the stormwater that occurred in 1937 swept most of the roads and buildings. The ones that sustained the force of the floods sustained fractures and could not be safe for further use. The aftermath saw demolition of part of the city as a result of the severe stormwater. While the incident happened for a short period of time in history, the impact on the infrastructure and businesses was severe. Lundy et al. (2017) also investigated the accumulation of stormwater in the urban centres and failure of the water runoffs led to increased exposure to E. coli. The stagnant stormwater on the surface and within the drainage system led to inconvenienced commercial and residential activities, which almost brought the business activities to a halt. Consumption of raw foods, garden watering, ingestion of untreated water and toilet flushing became critical activities that had a direct impact on the population. The risk matrix developed in the assessment of the impact of stormwater on the urban resources showed a connection to the consequences behind public health exposure. This amounted to different interests that attracted the commercial, community, and political concerns in London. The reception of the water ecology and a consideration of water reuse schemes could only resolve to treatment options, which also marked extra expenses in the long run. Perhaps, there was much more to be spent on recovering the suitable image of the city, as well as putting every activity back to its operational state.
Zhou (2014) further focused on the changes in the urbanization impact in major cities, including London, as a result of floods and severe stormwater runoffs. The need for sustainable drainage systems has gained significant attention for a period of time following the public interest in the effects of water quality as well as quantity across the recreational amenities. The report developed by Zhou (2014) showcases the effects of the drainage solutions, visual amenities, ecological protections and the recreational value in most of the urban centres. Chances of climate change are likely to hasten the incoming storms, which are likely to increase urban flooding and water runoffs. The anticipated patterns of urban flooding posit a big danger to the urban designs with each incident sweeping away part of the drainage systems. The study also indicates that stormwater runoffs are likely to change the urban intensity as well as distribution. Most of the businesses would end up being established in safer sides free from runways and harmful quality of water. The same goes to the impact of runoffs on the spread of pollutants, which directly affects the quality of water and increase the expenditures of water treatment. Most of the researchers have questioned the future of the city with repeated episodes of floods and stormwater, which is consistently chasing away potential investors.
2.3 Risk factors associated to stormwater runoffs and floods in London and its outskirts
As mentioned before, the stormwater runoffs witnessed in the 1990s are never the same like the ones witnessed in the 1880s. The encroachment of natural resources and manmade structures are thought to impede the natural hydrological cycles. Chini et al. (2017) and Zhou (2014) explored different risk factors that lead to severe runoffs and floods in London and its environs. While stormwater seem to disrupt urban development, Zhou (2014) indicates that urban development is the first risk factor that contributes towards the runoffs. Urban development and urbanization have been part of the global issues that pose a challenge towards climate change and the patterns of the water system. The drainage system is thought to strike sustainable processes that checks on the hydrological cycle. Urbanization is largely characterized by urban intensity and settlements that hamper the accessibility of the stormwater to the ground. The hindrance is due to pavements, shelters, roads, and massive storage tanks that reduce the surface for water seepage. Urban development means extending an impervious surfaces that blocks the natural waterways thereby lead to floods. Therefore, one of the risk factors to stormwater runoffs indicated by Chini et al. (2017) involves urban development and expansion, which limits the surface for water seepage as well as making it hard for volumes of water to find the runways.
In addition, the conventional drainage system posits a challenge to the waterways. Modern drainage systems divert the natural course without considering the structure of the rocks. Most of the researchers have raised concerns of diverted watercourses and the fusion of the sewage system is likely to spark strong environmental interferences. The concrete pipes as well as the underground basis take a lot of time as well as costs in installing the drainage network. The same network is never flexible for the purposes of adapting to critical circumstances that can occur due to natural forces. The rigidity of the conventional system informs on a potential risk factor that can lead to accumulation of stormwater due to blockages on the waterways. Bajracharya et al. (2015) further indicates that natural forces should not be ignored as part of the risk factors to the occurrence of floods and stormwater runoffs. Natural forces cannot be controlled by human beings in the sense that they exhibit extreme power and occur unpredictably, which makes it hard to anticipate the patterns. However, most of the natural forces like the explosion of volcanoes have never been witnessed on River Thames and therefore, no evidence can be provided against the assertion. Despite lack of evidence, natural forces can change the nature of the waterways and therefore disrupt the normal course of the water (Hopkins et al. 2018). Countries prone to volcanoes like Japan and some parts of the African continent are key witnesses to runoffs and floods due to stormwater due to blockages.
Zhou et al. (2015) further investigated the urban pluvial flooding in relation to the open surface water systems in Tianjin Eco-city and Almere. In their study, Zhou et al. (2015) noted that climatic changes have altered the weather and precipitation events, which increases the possible risk of pluvial flooding in most regions undergoing urban planning and other processes. The study by Zhou et al. (2015) is in agreement with that of Bajracharya et al. (2015) and Chini et al. (2017) who also cited urban changes as key contributors to pollution, which can alter weather patterns by a significant degree. In Tianjin metropolitan, the rainfall hit 300 mm, which became a historical scenario. It marked one of the heaviest storms that have never been witnessed for over 61 years as the city faced an economic loss of 1.83 billion dollars. After the floods, 61 people had lost their lives and hundreds of cars drowned. The subsequent investigations done on the case raised by Zhou et al. (2015) cited global climatic changes as the core reason to the runoffs and floods as a result of the storm. Sometimes, the climatic changes lead to decomposition of some of the rocks that stabilize the waterways. With a naturally tampered waterway, the rapid conveyance of the runoffs is a possible outcome that can rarely be avoided. While the study was conducted in China, the same awareness has been extended to Europe, which is a close neighbour to China. The climatic changes happening in China can still affect the normal courses of business activities in London. The remarkable findings by Zhou et al. (2015) indicate chances of a trend that emanates from the natural causes without blaming the mankind over the uncertainties. This posits a meaningful thought of further research that looks into the changes in the natural forces, which contributes towards the stormwater runoffs.
2.4 Sustainable mitigating measures to contain stormwater runoffs in London
Ramos et al. (2017) focused on possible sustainable drainage measures that can contain the stormwater runoffs. Sustainability supports courses that can control waterways and water seepage as contemplated under the soil conservation service. Ramos et al. (2017) considers traditional sustainable urban drainage as being weak and lacks the required management. However, countries are now focused on the design and construction of systems that can influence development as well as minimize the drainage of the normal rainwater. The modern sustainable urban drainage supports the view of urban development, policies, and environmental adaptation. Different researchers have informed on social and environmental factors that contribute towards drainage decisions. A series of management practices as well as control structures under SUD are tailored towards the sustainable course. SUD looks beyond sustainable measures by tapping into floods mitigation measures. In addition, the scope of SUD fosters management practices that include reduction in the emissions, mitigation of accidents, and other non-structural measures. On the other hand, floods mitigation measures constitute the inclusion of the international policies, master plans and the best mitigation practices. Close to the flood mitigation measures are the non-structural measures, which narrow down to application of technical manuals, legislation, and standards that govern the citizens and organizations.
Zhou (2014) further indicates that SUDs are never based on the modern designs but on the basis of ideas, values, and policies that drives the society towards taking care of the environment. Zhou (2014) insists that the SUDs measures observe the significance of the hydrological cycle, which made him to take note of three important groups. The groups of the SUDs incorporate the impact relevant measures have on the routing process and water runoffs. The first category encompass the source control measures believed to focus more on detaining as well as attenuating the excess of water running upstream. Some of the measures under this category include the green roofs, local infiltration, and the permeable pavements. Besides, the onsite control measures insist on preventing as well as reducing the impact of flood hazard on the recipient susceptibility. Some of the measures include the topographic modification and assets production. The last group consists of the downstream measures, which are related to the conveyance capacity of the entire system.
Ramos et al. (2017) and Zhou (2014) further focused on the applicability of some of the measures. For instance, the application of the permeable pavements in containing the stormwater runoffs is witnessed in the way the strategy reduces the peak flow, as well as boost the water quality in the case of heavy storms. Subsequent analysis of the SUD techniques such as infiltration basin and filter drains shows the potential of containing the risk of flooding especially in new development areas. The SUDs have been thought as a better deal in facilitating storage of water especially when the water volumes are high. Zhou (2014) showcased examples of Holman Dodds and Stewart and Hytiris as contributors to the reviewed urbanized landscape, which is made possible through the grass swale system, the detention basin, and the upstream infiltration. As much as SUD is lauded as the perfect approach that provides a roadmap to development of sustainable or greener cities, the approach has raised questions and scepticism. For instance, Bergman observed two stormwater infiltration trenches, which were installed in the 1990s in Denmark. The trenches were consistently faced with clogging effects, which raised doubts on whether SUDs were better placed to impact urban development (Feitosa and Wilkinson 2016). Perhaps, the shortcoming indicates the essence of observing the synergies that support combination of more than one initiative in addressing a common problem.
2.5 The natural and structural factors that can be considered for structures that support stormwater discharge
According to Walsh et al. (2016), stormwater has been part of the hydrological cycle, which enhances the surface runoff treated through the Best Management Practices. The purpose of the BMPs is largely to offer the guidance in either determining the area or the factors in determining the measures or structures to be put in place. Walsh et al. (2016) present the valuable guidance especially on the design, construction, as well as the need for maintenance. The goal of developing the guidance is to ensure detention and capture of the stormwater runoff. This gives an insight into the criteria that has to be used in determining a permanent solution. First, site selection is the prime factor that has to be put in place before even thinking of the solutions towards the problem of stormwater runoffs. Preliminary screening includes assessment of the available area and whether the site calls for the stormwater management structure. Under the available area, the management structures have to first intercept the first flush. The first flush characteristics are rarely contained in most of the designs, which calls for subsequent constructions leading to extra costs.
The surface area of the structure can be determined through the product of the rainfall runoff volume and the drainage basin area. Therefore, any structure to be setup has to determine the depth and the surface area depending on the maximums and minimums. The second factor is the lowest drainage point where a site has to fulfil the requirements of the drainage criterion behind the drainage basin. The third factor includes the potential pollutants. It is of note that stormwater runoff has been considered as the nonpoint source of pollution on the basis of land uses as well as human activities. Some of the key examples include the service stations, piles of debris, pesticides and fertilizers, sewage systems, industrial and commercial areas, and agricultural activities. The fourth factor is the soil type, which can only be determined through a research on the soil profile. The fifth factor is the proximity to the water wells where the structures are supposed to be sited approximately 10 feet from either the public or the private wells. Besides, distance to structure foundations, proximity to slopes and distance to roads and street pavements determines the measures to be put in play. Apart from the selection criteria, policy makers and designers have to focus on the sizing criteria, which is a key determinant for the infiltration rates. First, the volumes of the stormwater runoffs can prompt the determination of the design storm volume. Secondly, designers have to consider the depth to groundwater as well as the need for maintenance. Critical changes may call for a complete change of the entire structure. Rigid structures can lead to frequent demolitions, which are never recommended in any of the initiative.
2.6 Government support stormwater management
The struggle towards achieving a greener or sustainable city has raised the question of whether the government participates in developing some measures, or plays any active or passive roles towards changes. McDonald et al. (2014) showed that London has been benefitting from the government in terms of the policy context, the current provision, and the funding arrangement. The London’s network of green spaces and parks are currently managed by over 40 public agencies and authorities. This is a result of the need for extensive management, planning as well as maintenance of the key assets provided towards the green infrastructure. However, McDonald et al. (2014) alluded to the fact that the prevailing network was not squarely meant to address the environmental imperatives like the ecological resilience, urban cooling, and the quality of water and air in the urban areas.
Besides, the green space and traditional parks have been subject to issues related capital investment characterized by underfunding both in the maintenance and management. Despite the challenges, the government has played a frontal role in bolstering the traditional concept behind the green spaces and sustainable cities. The scope of international studies indicate that the UK government has been part of the development of the London’s green infrastructure, which also implies that the government keeps the SUDs under check. This means that the government behind the London Plan, which addresses the effects of climatic changes, which have also contributed towards heavy storms and severe floods and runoffs (Morales-Torres et al. 2016). The plan aimed at introducing a tree canopy that covers 30% of the London’s area while 10% takes a green cover including the Central Activities Zone. With all measures in place, the UK government will emerge as the key players in the world as a result of curbing the global climate change through establishment of the sustainable measures. Therefore, the efforts of the government cannot be ignored and cannot be forgotten at the same as far as the green infrastructure is put in play.
2.7 Research Gap
The literature review has been consistent with details behind stormwater management and the risk factors. While delving into the history, researchers and designers have tracked measures and initiatives put in place by key stakeholders in regulating or containing the stormwater problems. Across all case studies, there have been rare cases that touch on the understanding of the effects of activities as well as practices behind stormwater management. The gap informs on the expansion of sustainable measures that can make key stakeholders to understand the need of considering the measures and practices to be involved in stormwater management in the city of London. Perhaps, there is need to understand why some of the mechanisms failed before and whether a change is needed in handling or addressing the entire issue of stormwater management.
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
A recap of the research aims points at the essence of understanding the influence or the impact of noticeable practices and development practices linked to stormwater management. The research captures a process that begins from realizing the effects of stormwater on most of the urban resources, to the point where the society needs to understand key factors that need attention when working on different structures (Sekaran and Bougie 2016). In realizing the credible findings, methodology comes in as an essential tool that focuses on the systematic and theoretical analysis of significant and relevant methods that can be utilized in the study. Based on this, the chapter will focus on establishing the philosophy to be used, the approach, research method and strategy, data collection technique, the sampling process and data analysis.
3.1. Research philosophy
A research philosophy is mainly regarded as a belief in the way a phenomenon ought to be gathered, analysed as well as used. In examining the impact of stormwater and a history of the failed attempts of containing the effects attract the subjective interpretation as well as intervention in reality (Sekaran and Bougie 2016). Therefore, the most suitable philosophy that can address the research in London is interpretivism. The essence of the philosophy revolves around the capacity of conducting the study within the natural environment, which constitutes of the seasonal stormwater runoffs. Besides, the researcher is served with an opportunity of interpreting elements that define a phenomenon as noted in the research process (Ryan 2018). Given that the study touches on people living in London and its outskirts, the researcher can easily explore the social constructions defined by instruments, shared meanings, language, and consciousness among others (Hughes and Sharrock 2016). The idealistic position of interpretivism calls for the researcher to play the role of a social actor who appreciates the most defining differences among the people living in London and its outskirts. Interpretivism was selected because it is advantageous in terms of attracting primary data in the research, as well as it addresses issues of ethics during and even after the research (Paul 2017).
3.2. Approach of the study
The research approach is always convenient in establishing the process involved in the research. It should be noted the research already pointed at the research questions, which narrow down to the scope behind the study (Bryman 2016). With such characteristics in place, it is evident that the research is making the significant use of inductive approach. A study of stormwater in London should start from the observations, theories and end with explanations. With this in place, the inductive approach informs on a pattern that allows the researcher to define the direction for the research. On the basis of understanding behind the practices in London purposed to control stormwater runoffs, the approach provides the support in terms of generating meanings from the collected data (Mason et al. 2018). This also helps in establishing relationships and patterns that support either a new theory, or an existing one. In addition, resemblances, regularities, and patterns develop into an experience before one can construct any conclusions. The choice of the inductive approach was as a result of various advantageous it provided towards the research process. First, the inductive research is regarded as a logical approach that is essentially grounded on thinking and observation. This means that it is open to ideas and theories that support construction of meaning around the research questions. Secondly, it is regarded as a psychological approach where it provides the scope for participation of students. This means that professional qualifications may not count on the side of the participants. In addition, the inductive approach makes the learning process easy and permanent (Greenfield et al. 2015). For instance, the experience of damages witnessed in London by most business people due to stormwater provides a platform for learning and understanding the forces that disrupt the development of the city. Finally, it supports the scientific attitude among young researchers who may look at societal problems from reasonable dimensions that can lead to significant patterns and relationships (Bryman 2016). While it is easy to understand the effects of stormwater on the lives and properties in London, the approach can link the incidents to a history that has witnessed similar cases in the same region, or elsewhere.
3.3. Research strategy and method
A research method largely inform in the strategy to be used in implementing the plan that is realized in the research process. A good research method informs on the design while ensuring that the data obtained provides answers to the research questions. The most convenient research method that works conveniently with the inductive approach and interpretivism is qualitative method. The qualitative research is normally considered as the scientific method of observation utilized in collecting non-numerical data (George 2019). The qualitative meaning is well captured in the concept definitions, symbols, metaphors, characteristics, as well as descriptions. Based on this, the method invests in a process that provides an understanding to the research problem based on the perspectives retrieved from the local population. A research on the history, effects, understanding of the practices and development frameworks that can solve the problem of stormwater runoffs in London and its outskirts can be addressed through qualitative method (Palinkas et al. 2015). This is based on the fact that the method is more flexible and paves way for adaptation and spontaneity of the fruitful interaction between the study participant and the researcher. This also implies that the method largely supports open-ended questions that give the participant the freedom to air his or her views while responding to the questions (Meyer 2015). Sometimes, the qualitative method forges a temporary but significant relationship between the participant and research compared to quantitative research, which is extremely formal. The temporary bond ensures that the participant has trust in the researcher, and is even free to elaborate some of the responses regarding stormwater in London. The thought of the qualitative research, instead of the quantitative method, came around as a result of several advantages considered in the research process. First, the qualitative method invests in the exploratory research, which gives the respondents an opportunity of answering to questions in their own words (Taylor et al. 2015). This means that they are rarely exposed to questions that have fixed responses. The advantage ensures that the research process is rich as well as explanatory in nature. Secondly, the qualitative method allows the researcher to be more flexible while probing the previous responses from the participants. This means that the researcher can still listen and engage participants based on the individual styles and personalities. Sometimes, the one-on-one contact between the researcher and participants is likely to yield a conversation, which attracts not only ideas but also personal views from the respondent. As much as the method proves to be more convenient, the researcher is also warned over cases of ambiguity, bias, and prejudice noted in the qualitative method (Padgett 2016). The trend is evident when interacting with participants in the field. The qualitative method can work more conveniently when used along a research strategy. The adoption of the case study and phenomelogical strategies can perfectly serve the research process while availing the deeper understanding of the stormwater runoffs and their impact in London. Phenomenological strategy pays more attention towards empirical matters and lived experiences for the people regarding the phenomenon or concept (Na 2014). For instance, the qualitative method makes use of the phenomenological strategy in studying the lives of people in London and the way those lives have changed in the face of a history of stormwater runoffs as a phenomenon. The strategy further informs that data is always collected from different individuals believed to have had the same experience of the phenomenon (Meyer 2015). This is all aimed at gaining the deeper understanding of the meanings and nature behind the everyday experiences. While applying phenomenology, epoche is the common feature where the researcher has to disqualify, inhibit, and invalidate the commitments referred to the prior experience and knowledge (Padilla-Díaz 2015). This compels the researcher to set aside the prejudices, predilections, and predispositions, thereby allowing a fresh look at things. The strategy also allows the researcher to write questions which can explore meaning behind the experiences individuals had while encountering the phenomenon. Apart from the phenomenological strategy, the case study strategy only extends the experience while adding strength to what is already known (George 2019). However, case studies focus on a few events and conditions while investing in the empirical inquiry within the real life context.
3.4. Data collection method
3.4.1 Data collection technique
Data collection methods can include several qualitative methods that range from pilot interviews, focus group interviews, as well as questionnaire surveys. In this context however, the research aims at engaging a bigger number of participants, which makes questionnaires the most convenient tool (Barry et al. 2015). Using the questionnaire makes it a research instrument that involves a series of questions aimed at collecting significant information from participants. Questionnaires can simply be thought as a written interview which can be carried out by telephone, through a website or face to face. The tool provides a cheaper, effective and quicker means of gaining large amounts of data from relatively large sample of individuals (James 2016). While responding to questions like “what are the causes and reasons for the occurrence of storms in London”, the researcher will keenly be looking at the opinions, intentions, attitude and preferences from the subjects given the open forum that allows participants to share their thoughts. The choice of questionnaires as the ultimate method for collecting data is accompanied by the fact that the tool is cheaper and quicker in conducting the research across a relatively large sample of the population (Fung et al. 2015). The only problem with using this method revolves around chances of the respondents being biased because of the social desirability.
3.4.2 Data Collection process
The data collection process for this researcher might take a relatively long period of time of around one week and some days. In the first week, the researcher will largely delve into extending awareness to students and some workers within the school compound. The awareness has to be extended to over 500 participants with expectations of a turnout of 120 participants on the eve of the research. The preliminary stages will involve approaching groups of students and having conversations that will inform on the research. The researcher will only provide a preview of what the research entails and why the participation of students or workers will be highly appreciated. Most of the prospectus participants will also be asked as to whether they stay in London and its outskirts or not. Additional questions during the talks involve the age, the years of stay and the experience they have on stormwater runoffs (Neuman 2016). The one-on-one talks can take almost five days, given that the prospectus participants will also be issued with consent forms and participant information sheet that explains the protection the researcher provides to the participants, as well as the kind of questions one is likely to encounter. The prospectus participants will also be expected to sign the consent forms and the information sheet if they agree to the terms. Upon signing the written consent form and information sheet, the participant will be asked to share personal contacts that can facilitate communication between the researcher and the participant. The contacts will be retained by the researcher who will also promise to keep them confidential and only use them for communication purposes and nothing else (Brace 2018). The second stage of the process includes contacting the participants to inform them on the date of the research, which should be done two days before the day of the research. The communication will be done after the five days of one-on-one talks. The third stage of the process will be done on the eve of research where the participants will be briefed on the consent details, the ethical considerations, and the kind of questions that will be extended to them. This will be more of a revision because the participants will be expected to have read the participant information sheet shared to them during the one-on-one talks (Etikan et al. 2016). The fourth stage includes sharing the questionnaires to the participants within the agreed venue and finally, the researcher will collected the response from participants after the assigned period elapses.
3.4.3 Sampling process
Sampling process is a significant part of the research process and it is treated as a complex issue across most of the qualitative researches. There are many sampling techniques that can be used in any qualitative research and some of them keep overlapping (Barratt et al. 2015). However, this research finds purposive sampling as being relevant to the research process given that it selects people on the basis of the aims behind the research. Some of the categories involved in purposive sampling include the age, the role or function of the institution, status, gender, and the ideology behind the researcher (Gentles et al. 2015). The power and logic behind purposeful sampling resides in the information-rich cases that can be realized in the course of data collection. While the research aims at approaching 500 students and workers, the purposive sampling aims at only selecting 120 people who are educated or are currently studying in the university, who have a minimum age of 18 years and who have stayed in London or its outskirts for a minimum of two years (Gentles et al. 2015). This may not favour international students in their first year based on the presumption that they might be having only one year of life experience in London and its outskirts.
3.5. Data analysis
Data analysis is regarded as a systematic process that employs logical techniques in describing, illustrating, condensing, and evaluating data. Across the data analysis, thematic analysis is confirmed to be the most appropriate method for the qualitative research. This is because it insists on pinpointing, examining as well as recording patterns noted within data (Braun et al. 2014). The central goal of thematic analysis revolves around identification of themes, which are the patterns noted across the collected data. Thematic analysis has been considered for this research because it provides the most precise and effective steps that arrives at most credible conclusions. First, the tool demands the researcher to become familiar with data by reading as well as re-reading different transcripts, notes, and choices selected by the participants (Vaismoradi et al. 2016). It also good to take notes on the impressions and feelings the participants have towards stormwater runoffs in London and the efforts considered in containing the damages. Secondly, the researcher is expected to generate initial codes. Apparently, coding condenses data into meaningful small chunks. Codes can easily be generated from the research questions or the perspective within which a set of questions are being asked. The third stage is searching for themes, which is regarded as a pattern that mainly captures interesting details behind the research question (Smith 2015). The stage demands that codes can be organized in broader themes. In this context, the themes are absolutely descriptive given that they are associated to the personal experiences people have in London as far as stormwater is put into consideration. The fourth stage of thematic analysis involves reviewing themes, which entails gathering all the details behind each theme (Vaismoradi et al. 2016). The fifth stage includes definition of themes, which includes identification of essence of each theme as related to the research topic. This stage is also the final stage of the analysis while developing the write-up for the major findings from the research process.
3.6. Ethical consideration
One of the pillars of this research is grounded on ethics, which demands respect for every participant who takes part in the research. The ethical considerations are well established in the consent forms that call for the approval from the participant (Swain 2016). First, the research observes the principle of informed consent, which compels the researcher to provide all the information as well as assurances regarding the participations, and the parties to take responsibility in case of any eventuality. The written consent form is an assurance the researcher gives to any participant s regards the permissible content and engagements (Miller et al. 2015). Secondly, the research also observes privacy and anonymity. The collected data will be kept confidential and can only be used upon receiving permission from the participant. The researcher will keep the identity of the participant anonymous from everybody and will only use the personal contacts to communicate the dates of the research. However, no personal details will be shared on the eve of the research (Makhoul et al. 2018). Finally, the researcher paves way for voluntary participation. A participant has the freedom of pulling out of the research process without giving any reason to anybody.
Chapter 4: RESULTS, DISCUSSION, AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Demographic profile
The research extended awareness to a population of 510 students within the campus, together with 15 workers. However, most of the workers were never willing to take part in the research process and their participation was discarded on the eve of data collection. Out of the 510 students, only 138 confirmed their participation. Out of this number, 112 are the only ones who turned up for the research. The number is a bit lower than the 120 mark that was anticipated before. However, the figure was significant enough in validating the progress of the research. From the questionnaires, the following questions described the demographic nature of the sample.
How old are you?
Are you currently residing in London or its outskirts?
For how long have you stayed in your current residence?
The findings established that all the participants were at least 18 years. The 112 participants either stayed in London or its outskirts. A total of 71 participants stayed in London, and the remaining 41 had their homes in the outskirts of London. This is part of the justification of their experience with events, phenomena, and changes in the lifestyle within their areas of residence.
Lastly, 108 had at least a 3 years stay in their current area of residence with only 4 having less than 2 years stay in their respective location. The research noted that the 4 must be international students who reported 1 year ago, and therefore might have less knowledge regarding the experience of stormwater. However, with such a demographic profile in place, it is quite convincing that the research was on the right course in terms of tracing justifiable findings during and after the research process. This is accompanied by the fact that at least 90% of the participants have experienced or have heard of the stormwater in London.
4.1 A history of stormwater runoffs in London and the prerequisite initiatives
The section establishes findings on the following questions.
Has your area of residence encountered storms before?
How often do you experience storms in your area of residence?
From the findings, it could be established that all the participants have experienced storms before. Given that this was a YES/NO response, it could not be established how they experienced it and whether it was in London or other places especially for the international students. At least 41 respondents said that they experienced the storms frequently, 58 respondents said they encountered it occasionally and the remaining 13 respondents said that they rarely encountered it.
This confirms that London experiences storms from time-to-time especially during rainy seasons. The findings also reaffirm the case studies conducted by Butler and Davies (2003) who established that floods in London tend to increase on annual rates. The recent years have been characterized by frequent and severe storms that lead to runoffs with significant changes noted along Thames River. The research conducted by Gasper et al. (2011) indicates that floods and stormwater in London has a history of destroying properties and consuming the lives of people. Early initiatives included construction of dams and dikes, which became more evident in the 1950s. Gasper et al. (2011) also confirmed that climatic data have consistently indicated that poor urban planning and unstable structures are the key contributors to the impediment of the hydrological cycle. This sends a message of sustainability, in which reliable measures are needed to curb or contain the bad experience people have with the stormwater.
4.3 The impact of stormwater on the urban resources in London
This section responds to the following questions:
Do storms inconvenience business or destroy the infrastructure in your locality?
Who is severely affected in the occurrence of storms?
What is the impact of storms on the urban resources in your locality?
The 112 participants agreed with the fact that storms disrupt normal business, and even destroy the infrastructure. At least 62 respondents noted that families and business persons are highly affected by storms due to the need of moving from one place to another. 28 noted that students suffer most because of the increased costs of moving to safer places. 20 respondents indicated that everyone living in the affected area is affected by the storms. The remaining 2 said that the government is highly affected as a result of the extra costs to be met in compensating for the lives lost, and the need for re-planning the urban resources.
On the severity of the impact of storms on urban resources, 96 participants said that that the impact of storms is extremely severe especially where urban resources are involved. The remaining 16 participants indicated that the impact is always very severe. In general, the findings indicated that stormwater has a negative impact on most of the urban resources in London and its outskirts. These findings resonate with those of Lundy et al. (2017), which narrowed down to human interactions with the stormwater.
Lundy et al. (2017) established that the incident of stormwater occurred in 1937 and it was very voluminous in that it swept away roads and buildings. The ones that remained sustained cracks and could no longer are used because of safety reasons. The same impact could further be noted in the urban centres as stagnant stormwater increased the breeding platform for E. coli. Businesses came to a halt and consumption of water became risky due to waterborne diseases. Besides, studies by Zhou (2014) indicate changes in urbanization and the impact such changes can have on major cities such as London. Most of the changes have been as a result of the stormwater runoffs and floods as alluded by Zhou (2014). The failure of the society in addressing sustainable drainage has raised attention of the public as far as water quality is put into consideration. The findings by Zhou (2014) indicate that London has suffered from the stormwater phenomenon and attention is currently redirected to drainage solutions, recreational value, ecological protections as well as visual amenities. Chances of climate change and the abrupt increase in urban flooding posits danger to urban designs with structures being swept from time to time. In addition, imbalanced development of the urban centre is an extra danger that no participant mentioned in the course of the research process. Businesses and even residential homes are likely to be established in areas or parts of the town that are not prone or susceptible to waterways and runways. To sum up, episodes of floods as well as stormwater is an impediment to the growth of the city, which means stormwater management is an unavoidable platform for most of the stakeholders.
4.4 Risk factors linked to stormwater runoffs and floods
This section aimed at exploring findings on the following questions.
What can be some of the causes and reasons for the occurrence of storms?
What are some of the problems that can be linked to stormwater in your locality?
Do you think there are risk factors to the impact of stormwater?
Question 9 and 11 almost attracted same answers but with thematic analysis, the research made it clear through themes as to whether some of the factors could be risk factors or causes, or appear in both. 98 participants noted that the prime cause for storms in London revolved around climatic changes. Some cited the imbalance in the hydrological cycle that seems to attract storms from time to time. However, 10 noted that urban development, especially human settlement, is limiting space for waterways, which makes some of the runoffs to make their way in houses and other commercial buildings. 4 respondents could not identify key reasons and causes for the occurrence of runoffs in London and its outskirts.
Besides, 101 respondents could easily connect hopelessness and regrets to the aftermath of every episode of stormwater in London. Most of the families would end up in despair after losing their family members or properties worth millions of money. This amounts to social and economic problems people face as far as stormwater is put into consideration. The remaining 11 respondents cited government initiatives as the key problem attached to stormwater in different localities. Members were also in a position to identify different risk factors that lead to stormwater runoffs and floods. At least 105 participants randomly identified urban development, previous dikes, and dams, climatic change and the existing modern drainage systems as the risk factors to stormwater runoffs in the urban area. It is of note that the four risk factors appeared randomly across the 105 respondents and fell under a common theme of natural and influenced risk factors. 5 participants could cite unpredictable conditions such as geographical movements as the possible risk factors that can influence the occurrence of stormwater.
The findings attached to the above research questions could easily be connected to the research conducted by Chini et al. (2017) and Zhou (2014). The two focused on the problems, causes and reasons, as well as the risk factors that emanate from the encroachment of the natural resources, and the modern structures that hamper the flow of the hydrological cycle. Zhou (2014) indicates that one of the key risk factors and cause for occurrence of stormwater is urban development. The latter works in hand with urbanization, which has raised profound issues towards changes in the patterns of the prevailing water system, as well as climatic changes. The settlement and urban intensity has led to construction of huge storage tanks, pavements, roads and shelters, which significantly limits the surface for waterways and runoffs.
Urban development has also been part of the extended impervious surfaces, which blocks the waterways created naturally. Secondly, Chini et al. (2017) indicates that the contemporary drainage system does not add value to the lives of people, but it only stands out as a cause and a risk factor that prompt the occurrence of the stormwater. Most of the modern drainage systems would end up diverting the natural course. Most of the constructed systems do not focus on the rock structure, or the history of the prior waterways. Due to ignorance of the history and the nature of the soil profile, environmental interferences are possible and can lead to the occurrence of stormwater. Most of the concrete pipes and installed drainage network are part of the prime causes of accumulation of stormwater in the underground voids. As mentioned before, natural forces can still count as part of the risk factors as noted by Bajracharya et al. (2015). Natural forces are beyond human control and can lead to blockages in the rivers and stormwater runoffs. Natural forces can also influence climatic changes that tamper with the hydrological cycle. Bajracharya et al (2015) noted that weather as well as precipitation events are likely to enhance pluvial flooding. The researcher also notes that a history of flooding in an area would easily prompt stormwater to follow the course and lead to severe impacts on the lives and property.
4.5 Sustainable and reliable measures that can curb stormwater runoffs
The section responds to the following questions:
What are some of the measures that can be put in place to regulate the impact of stormwater?
Do you think the existing structures are not convenient enough in controlling the impact of stormwater?
From the first question, 68 participants called for government intervention in terms of setting up better structures that can contain stormwater. At least 33 participants supported the idea of better structures and management practices that can maintain sustainable urban drainage. The remaining 10 respondents suggested on policies and government-private sector partnerships in spreading awareness on conservation of environment, and convince the society on group clean-ups that can unblock pipes, dig trenches, and open new waterways. On the second question, 45 participants noted that the government has not done enough in terms of modifying the structures to contain stormwater runoffs. 41 participants noted that the government has tried but a history of the loss of lives and properties has always thwarted its efforts. 20 members expressed dissatisfaction and pointed out the need of working on the designs, and finally, 5 members could not indicate their position as regards the requirements of the question.
The findings from the research process resonate with the research findings documented by Ramos et al (2017) who focused on almost a similar subject. Ramos and the colleagues noted that sustainability should focus on water seepage and waterways. Perhaps, the adoption of dikes and dams appears obsolete in an era where management practices are dominant. This is the reason as to why London has been encountering repeated episodes of loss of lives and property as a result of storm water. Ramos et al (2017) further indicates that more countries are attracted to design and construction. In addition to this, such countries still observe key management practices that constitute environmental adaptation, policies as well as urban development. SUD looks deep into flood mitigating measures, which constitutes master plans and international policies. The latter pays more attention on the legislation, technical manuals as well standards that invest in softer but satisfying means of controlling the impact of stormwater. Ramos et al (2017) and Zhou (2014) concentrated more on ideas, policies, and values that give environmental conservation efforts the most deserving attention. Therefore, the respondents must have had the feeling that the government has not made significant moves in terms of introducing permeable pavements, green roofs, and local infiltration. Others measures would look at topographic modification and the conveyance capacity of the introduced system. Perhaps, most of the Londoners would want to see more of SUD measures that repeated construction of dikes and dams, which still get washed away during the stormwater runoffs. Londoners seemingly have a feeling that realization of synergies in the society, such as the ones realized from the partnerships between government and the private sector, can lead to better solutions compared to government interventions alone.
4.6 Natural and structural factors for structures that support stormwater discharge
The section aimed at responding to the following questions.
What are some of the factors that need to be checked when developing structures to control stormwater discharge?
38 participants indicated that before putting up any structures, the environmental factors and the history of stormwater should be put into consideration. However, environmental factors include a range of them including the topography of the land, the presence of wells and climatic patterns in the area. 32 participants noted that the availability of resources and management practices are needed before putting up structures. This is based on the fact that resources without managerial capability are a big waste. 20 participants indicated that the drainage of the area and a history of the previous flood patterns and stormwater runoffs are determinant in developing the appropriate structures. At least 12 participants noted that the volumes of the previous flood patterns and stormwater runoffs should be involved when coming up with structures. The remaining 10 narrowed down to the sustainability check before validating certain structures.
The findings can be linked to other case studies such as the one conducted by Walsh et al. (2016), which focused on hydrological cycle and the best management practices. Walsh et al. (2016) provides guidance on the design and construction as regards putting up structures meant to control stormwater runoffs. Across design and construction, site selection is regarded as the leading factor when putting up structures. Prerequisite screening includes assessment of the environmental factors and the area as mentioned in the findings. Walsh et al. (2016) also fosters the topography or landscape where the lowest drainage point remaining a fulfilling factor in designing and developing structures. Soil types, volumes of the stormwater runoffs, infiltration rates and policies are also included when coming up with structures purposed to contain stormwater runoffs.
4.7 Government support
This section aims at providing findings for the following questions.
Is there any likelihood that the government will check on this problem in your locality?
What are some of the initiatives you want implemented by the government to impact stormwater management?
What are your final comments or remarks regarding proper stormwater management?
56 participants felt the government is likely to respond to problems behind stormwater runoffs in their respective locality, 47 respondents remained neutral and 8 remained undecided.
On the side of the initiatives people would want the government to implement in regards to stormwater management, 89 respondents were of the opinion that the green space initiatives were friendlier and manageable, and would therefore be easier to implement by the government. Among them, 56 respondents felt that attaining a city should be the ultimate goal for the government. 10 participants thought of traditional initiatives rather than modern techniques. Traditional initiatives are thought to be environmental friendly and cost less. Examples of traditional initiatives include maintaining the banks of Thames River greener, planting grass and introduce traditional trenches without slabs being introduced. Finally, 101 participants recommended the government and NGOs to consider stormwater management as one significant area that needs the most deserving attention. However, 11 members left the section blank.
Government remains to be the key player in terms of stormwater management. Perhaps, it is major stakeholder fronted to achieve a sustainable city. McDonald et al. (2014) agrees with the fact that developing sustainable cities is an initiative that should be worked on by government. This is because the government has the powers of working on policies that can promote a network of green spaces in London. Moreover, introduction of traditional parks and more green spaces aims at maintaining a consistent hydrological cycle, which will in return reduce the frequency of stormwater runoffs in London. As much as the respondents may deny or fail to identify the efforts of the government, international studies showcase that the United Kingdom government played a significant role in developing green infrastructure. The SUD’s have also featured in the London Plan, which targets canopy coverage of 30% of the London’s land. Therefore, a fight towards a sustainable city is on course and has support from the key stakeholders as far as the significance of containing the runoffs is put into consideration.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary
Chapter 1 of the research focused in the background, which captured the idea of stormwater management and urban drainage. River Thames was placed at the centre of the discussion following sewage disposals that have been happening for the past 200 years. With a basic history of activities at Thames River, the background a series of case studies that would remedy the severe impact of stormwater in London and its outskirts. With significant measures placed on the design and construction of dams and dikes, there is still a growing need for sustainable strategies that would offer sustainable solutions. The background also took note of the research gap, which manifests in terms of the consistent measures adopted by designs while focusing on the meaningful grounds that can impact stormwater management.
Apart from identifying the research problem, as well as justification, the chapter took note of the aim of the study, which revolves around facilitating the required understanding of the effects of practices and activities that bolster stormwater management. Some of the supporting objectives include examination of the impact of stormwater, identifying the affected parties and the preventive measures, risk factors and problems related to storms and factors to be considered while developing significant structures. Chapter 2 of the research focused on the literature review, which established findings from other case studies. The chapter reviewed a history of the occurrence of storms in London and the initiatives were established to counter the impact.
It could be established that London has been experiencing floods and stormwater runoffs ever since and the records indicate that the severity of the storms became more evident in 1791. During the occasions, the storms swept homes and killed thousands of people. The construction of dikes and dams, however, never gave a sustainable solution to the people living in London and its outskirts. Again, the review also looked at the impact of stormwater on the resources found in London. The most susceptible area includes open business centres and infrastructures that are laid in the course of waterways. The review also looked at the risk factors linked to stormwater, which include urban development and urbanization, conventional drainage system and natural forces among others.
Moreover, the review identified the mitigating measures such as management practices, non-structural measures, and international support among others. The involvement of government in developing sustainable cities has further made the green space a key area of focus as far as initiatives are put into consideration. Chapter 3 of the research focused more on methodology, which consist of a collection of tools and techniques that impacted the research findings. The research applied a qualitative method supported by the inductive approach and interpretivism as the research philosophy. Besides, the research picked on questionnaire as the key data collection tool where 112 participants undertook the research. Thematic analysis was selected as the most appropriate tool that would lead to justifiable findings extracted from different themes. Chapter 4 of the research focused on the results, discussion, and analysis.
Conclusion
The findings established that all participants were students and aged above 18 years. Still reaffirms the fact that the research relied on participants who would make decisions and give credible account of the events and circumstances surrounding London and its outskirts. On the basis of the history of stormwater runoffs, it can be concluded that London has consistently witnessed floods and runoffs with earlier initiatives failing to bear any fruits in the due course. The constriction of dikes and dams since 1791 has not provided London with a substantial and sustainable solution as regards the impact of stormwater. On the impact of stormwater, it can be concluded that stormwater leads to damages and destruction of urban resources. At the same time, stormwater is known for destroying properties and disrupting peace among families who are forced to move from one place to another. On the side of the risk factors that contribute towards stormwater runoffs and its impact, it can be concluded that urban development, natural forces and conventional drainage systems are the key risk factors as far as the runoffs are put into consideration. This can be confirmed by the disorientation of the hydrological cycle and the impediment of the waterways.
On the basis of the sustainable measures, it can be concluded that London is in need of sustainable activities or measures that can contain the occurrence and the impact of stormwater. Perhaps, better management practices are highly needed than better structures, which can fail if no measures are put in place. Finally, the research confirms the need of developing a sustainable city supported by green spaces and traditional parks. This is possible when the government supports green space initiatives, which can cut down on the rate of stormwater runoffs and their impact as well.
Limitations and strength
The research has its own limitations noted in some areas. Given that it used a questionnaire, it was not possible to collect findings in almost every area of the research. This means that that the findings were limited and could not cover a vast area as required. Timeframes were extremely demanding and the research process was to be conducted within the limited time. There is a feeling that the research never emptied all the ideas and opinions one would get from the same participants if it were a face-to-face interview. Apart from encountering limitations, the research also showcased its areas of strength. First, the research collected first-hand information, which is not interfered with or disrupted and modified by different authors. Secondly, the research worked on relevant tools and methods that collectively worked together to yield meaningful findings.
Future Research
Future research should invest more on how technology will change the face of sustainable cities. This can be accompanied by manifestation of green technology and properties that make it viable in an area where cities are continuously encountering floods and runoffs.
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