Global Conflicts: Cold War to War on Terror

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background information

War on terror, refers to an international military campaign, launched by the US government, following the September 11 attacks against the US by the Al Qaeda. On the other hand, gulf war is an international conflict, triggered by the Iraq’s, having invaded Kuwait in 1990, where, the Americans invaded the Gulf, in order the reverse the Iraq Invasion. Notably, the cold war and the war on terror were all aiming at countering the terrorist attacks, led by the Arab community, and the pursuit for international freedom, as well as peace. In other words, the Americans purposed to hold an incursion, as a battle between the Westerners, in pursuit of decency, and freedom against the then overly zealous Arabians (Shue, 1996). Prior to the 9/11, the American opinion leaders, as well as the public had mixed approaches regarding international affairs, owing to the fact that there was no single issue or concern that was then dominant. Whilst the spread of terrorism, as well as weapons of mass destruction were then ranked amongst the US’s greatest threats, the public, as well as elites also purposed to express their concerns regarding other global concerns such as infectious diseases, and international financial instability (Kissinger & Wellings, 1977). The administration led by Bush focused its foreign policy attention, primarily on countries such as Russia and China, thus, determining whether the peace settlements in the Middle East were in the cards. Most specifically, China was regarded as a country, which posed the greatest danger to the US. However, the elites and the public had the opinion that China’s case could just be managed, and that she was to be regarded as an enemy to be defeated. Moreover, the focus was on also on establishing a ballistic missile-defense system, and on contemplating the manner in which the US could deal with countries that were regarded as “rogue.” These countries included Iraq, Libya, North Korea, as well as Iran (Entman, 2004). Many meetings were held by the National Security Council Officials, which aimed at debating the pros, as well as cons of establishing new sanction regimes, against the then dictatorial government, led by Saddam Hussein in Baghdad. Moreover, they discussed the essential things that needed to be done, in an instance where US planes that enforced the no-fly zones over Iraq would be shot down (Hunt, 2009). Based on these meetings, it was evident that nothing or little was agreed on. Notably, various top officials failed to consider terrorism, or rather, radical Islamism as a high priority. For instance, Richard Clarke, who was the chief counter-terrorism expert, leading the National Security staff could hector relentlessly regarding the imminence of the threat that could be posed by terrorism. However, the public, as well as influential people had the belief that foreign terrorists had already posed greater risks, by deploying weapons of mass destruction against the US, than other hostile military powers (Krasner, 1978). Opinion leaders, as well as the public had the belief that peace and even prosperity in the US of the 1990s was then coming to an end. This was owing to the fact that various elite groups expressed little satisfaction regarding the state of the world (The level of satisfaction fell from 60 per cent to 34 per cent in the year 1997). Notably, much dissatisfaction was connected to the concerns regarding President’s Bush’s way of handling the US foreign policy, and specifically, the contention that arose, because he paid little attention to the concerns, as well as interests of traditional allies (Hunt, 2009). For instance, concerned individuals such as the then CIA director, George Tenet could notify the Council that the lights were already blinking red, but Colin Powell, Secretary of State; Donald Rumsfeld, Secretary of Defense; as well as Condoleezza Rice. National Security Advisor could not be convinced, as they translated this to be a great opposition of Bush’s proposal of missile defense. Of importance to take note of, was the fact that even Bush himself was not convinced. The 9/11 was the worst international attack by terrorists, which involved four coordinated aircraft hijackings. This occurred in the US, on September 11, 2001, whereby, 19 hijackers, belonging to the Al-Qaeda group killed and wounded passengers and pilots, and then ultimately destroyed preselected targets. Five of the terrorists hijacked the American Airline flight 11, five of them hijacked the United Airlines flight 175, four of them hijacked the United Airlines flight 93, and finally, five of them hijacked the American Airlines flight 77. More than 3000 people were killed in the four attacks and citizens from 78 countries at the World Trade Center site perished (Mearsheimer & Walt, 2007). President Bush said in a congress that US war on terror had just began with the Al-Qaeda, but it would not end there, until the terror group will have been found, stopped and also defeated. Other nations condemned the Al-Qaeda attack and joined the US in fighting terror on various fronts such as diplomatic, intelligence, military, economic, as well as law enforcement.

Up to date the Americans are still pondering over the best way to protect their nation. Notably, countering terrorism has become US’s national security priority, and it has its full support from the congress, media, American people, and great political parties. The US has purposed to commit enormous resources towards enhancing national security, and countering terrorism (Lindsay, 1994). In the fiscal year 2001, which was the last budget that was adopted prior to the 9/11, there was no monetary set aside for defense. However, to date, the federal spending ensures that there are sufficient funds set aside for national security, homeland security, as well as international affairs. For instance, in the 2004 fiscal year, there were expenditures set aside for Iraq and Afghanistan. The US has not experienced such kind of a rapid surge in terms of national security spending since the war of terror. Even before the 9/11, America had the same happening in its history (Pillar, 2004). It often faced sudden crisis, as well as tremendous exertions that involved national energy, but purposed to enhance effective counter terrorism. Neo liberalism identifies various policies, rationalities, as well as techniques of governance, which legitimized the institution responsible for creating market-friendly policies whilst considering domestic politics like emphasis on freedom, and deregulation, having been defined through the market. It is evident that neo liberal policies derived their footing in the US foreign policy, which leads to the growing significance of the creation of private security companies (Magdoff, 1969). In viewing the operations of preface capitalism, as well as foreign policy, neoliberalism is seem and it ideology at work in a professional army. Moreover, as the dust began settling in Iraq and this followed the aggressive pursuit that embarked, owing to the aftermath of the 9/11. It became increasingly evident that new imperialism emerged as much of the political discourse linked the aggressive foreign policy with the post 9/11 imperialism. The international law UNSC 2003 has its primary obligation of maintaining international peace, as well as security (Jacobs & Page, 2005). The UNSC has a total of 15 members, and each member is granted one vote. Based on the UN Charter, all members of the UNSC are required to comply with the decisions provided by the council. It is evident that the UNSC approved the invasion into Afghanistan, whereas it was against the invasion into Iraq, which then implied that the invasion into Iraq was considered an act that undermined the international law (Papacharissi & de Fatima Oliveira, 2008).

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1.2 Aim

This paper focuses majorly on the war on terror, thus, bringing under analytical scrutiny, the question of how the 9/11 intensify the US foreign policy like never before. It is significant to take note of the fact that after the 9/11, the US became much sensitive, and thus, resorted to find ways of reforming its foreign policy. This was in order to be able to easily counter terrorism attacked, President Bush made it clear that the war on terror had just began with the Al-Qaeda attack, and that it would not end there. This called for the need for the US to be more than ready to battle with the Arabian community. Owing to this, the primary aim of this study is as presented below:

What reforms were made to the US foreign policy, with the aim of intensifying it after the war on terror?

1.3 Objectives

In order to meet the aim of this study effectively, it was broken down into achievable objectives, which are as provided below:

To identify the reforms President Bush made to the US foreign policy after the war on terror

To find out how the US foreign policy was intensified after significant reforms were made to it

To investigate how the gulf war and the war on terror made the US to be able to counter terrorism attacks

To determine how the international law undermines the UNSC

1.4 Research questions

The research objectives were further broken down into answerable questions, in order to meet the aim of the study. The questions are as provided below:

What were the reforms that were made to the US foreign policy, which intensified it, to enable the US to counter terrorism attacks?

How did the gulf war and the war on terror prepare the US to the battles ahead, in countering terrorism attacks?

How does the international law undermine the UNSC?

1.5 Rationale and Justification

The subject of this paper is bound to the fact that were it not for the war on terror, the US would not have been able to find strategic ways, in which it could be able to counter-terrorism attacks, fashioned against it, and also to other states. Moreover, it is significant to note that the gulf war also prepared the US significantly, to be able to counter various terrorism attacks (Papacharissi & de Fatima Oliveira, 2008). Through the gulf war and the war on terror, the US is able to intensify its foreign policy like never before, as it then discovered that terrorism was an issue of great concern. Moreover, the war on terror enabled the UN to establish strategies to it could use in enhancing peace and security to member states. Notably, without it, the world would not have been a better place, as it has been able to enhance peace and stability through uniformity. However, it is also evident that there are certain states that undermine the international law, which this study purposes to provide detailed information on (Pillar, 2004). Overall, it is evident that for this reasons, this study is justified.

1.6 Structure of the paper

This paper is divided into five chapters. The first chapter is the introduction chapter, which provided the background information of the subject, the aim, objectives, research questions, rationale, and justification, and the structure of the paper. The second chapter is the literature review, which provides the theoretical underpinning of the subject. The third chapter is the methodology chapter that provides the research methods that were used in collecting the data, used in the study. The following chapter is the results and discussion chapter that provides the results derived from the collected data, and a clear and a detailed discussion that is in line with the literature review, and which explains the provisions of the results of the study. The final chapter is the conclusion chapter, which summarizes the content of the paper.

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

This chapter provides the reviews from literature, based on scholarly underpinnings. Notably, the provisions in this chapter will aid in answering the research questions, meeting the objectives of the research and consequently the aim of the study. Theories will be used, in line with the subject of the research. This chapter will first provide the history on the war on terror and the gulf war. Thereafter, it will provide a brief underpinning on the intensification of the US foreign policy, and thereafter, it will expound on various theories and models, which aid in establishing the need for the US to have an intensified foreign policies.

2.2 History on the war on terror and the gulf war

On September 2001, the American former president known as George W. Bush considered it wise to declare what is presently referred to as the “war on terror.” This was in response to the 9/11 fatal attacks that were conducted on the American ground. President Bush identified the significant American military response as one that had far-reaching and long-lasting consequences. He noted that the war on terror had just began with the Al Qaeda and that did not mean that it would end with them (Pillar, 2004). He stressed that he was bound to ensure that America fights every terrorist group, as the military purposed to find, stop and defeat them. Notably, The British prime minister, Tony Blair noted that the war on terrors was to be a war that would eliminate a threat, which was aimed at the entire democratic world. Blair made claims that such a threat was of a magnitude that had unprecedented measures, which would need to be taken care of, in order to uphold the initial freedom, as well as security that world nations had previously had (Hoffmann, 2006). Tony Blair also admitted that it was a war that divided the country, as this was based on significant evidence, relating to how Saddam had actual biological, as well as chemical, which was contrary to the capability of America to develop them turned out to be wrong. There were failures experienced in the intelligence that is provided in the new political rhetoric, basis its focus on ‘trust me,’ owing to the fact that ‘instincts should not be regarded as science.’ Overall, it is significant to note that the war on terror has over the years been regarded as one of the most important international events that has been experienced in the last three decades along with the collapsing of the former Soviet Union, Europe unification, the end of the apartheid rule in South Africa, and the marketization of China people’s republic (Atran, 2003). Unlike some other events, it is evident that the war on terror will not be remembers for purposing to advance democracy of even sovereignty for the purpose of politics conviction to particular politician that decided to dispense with the international law, as well as custom, to pursue personal interests, which later proved to be fatal. On the other hand, it is evident that of all the successes of various polities during this era, President Bush was associated with the most successful effort that rolled back to the Iraq invasion in Kuwait. Saddam Hussein invaded his oil-rich neighbour during the summer times of the 1990 and the State Department faced a post-cold war international crisis. The foreign policy that Bush used forges a significant unprecedented international coalition, which consisted on NATO allies, as well as the Middle Eastern countries that included Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and even Syria to oppose the aggression of the Iraq in Kuwait (Holcomb et al., 2007). Although countries such as Russia failed in commit its troops, it purposed to join the US in condemning Iraq, which had been its long-time client state. The US department of states purposed to orchestrate the diplomacy, for enhancing a grand coalition, which was effective in January 1991, and it was followed by an Operation Desert Storm, which was a 100 hour war that expelled the Iraqi forces from the land of Kuwait. During this gulf crisis, Baker, who was the then Secretary of State relied heavily on two individuals, John Boston, who was the Assistant Secretary for International Organization Affairs (Holloway, 2008). He played a vital role in coordinating the relations with the UN. The second person he relied on was Robert Kummitt, who was the UN secretary for political affairs. He was Baker’s crisis manager. One significant innovation, which greatly facilitated the making of decisions in the gulf war was the act of using telecommunications that purposed to save many hours of travel time. Rather, Baker and other individual could communicate and display their charts through television screens and cameras (Kellner, 2003). After the success that had been witness in Kuwait, President Bush paid a special tribute to the officers of foreign service who labored in obscurity until the time they were caught up in the dangerous conflict or rather, became victims of international terrorism. Bush visited the Department of State, in order to honor a total of 33 employees for offering their service at the Kuwait and Baghdad embassies that included food, as well as supplies for various trapped Americans in those countries, and also helping children, when the fight erupted (Mitchell et al., 2011). In acknowledging the peril, which most Americans could never see, President Bush noted that he was aware that their jobs were not comfortable or even safe. In his statement, he meant that Iraq was not the only country that was targeted for a trouble spot, during President’s Bush stay in office. The tension between Israel and its various Arabian neighbour countries continued testing the expertise that the US ambassadors had, as well as other area experts. Baker had his personal involvement, reflected in various trips to the region, and he purposed to help bring the first one-on-one talk between Israel and its various Arabian neighbour countries in Madrid (Mitchell & Mitchell, 2011). Baker had a shuttle diplomacy, and this was rivalled in Henry Kissinger’s escapades in the year 1974. Baker’s tenure was until 1992, when he decided to resign, to becoming White House’s chief of staff, where he made about 217 trips abroad.

2.3 Intensification of the US foreign policy

The intelligence of acquiring a new American foreign policy was widely shared within the security cycles of the government notable the pending attacks by the al-Qaeda group. Within a short span of the events, the attacks of 9/11 defined the presidency of Bush Junior. He termed the incident “the global war on terrorism” an undertaking that involved the torture of detainees, the incarceration of suspects in “black sites” and at a prison camp in Guantánamo Bay, the warrantless surveillance of U.S. citizens, and prolonged and costly military campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq (Belasco, 2009). Up to this present time, the Americans are still pondering over the best way to protect their nation. Notably, countering terrorism has become US’s national security priority, and it has its full support from the congress, media, American people, and great political parties. The US has purposed to commit enormous resources towards enhancing national security, and countering terrorism (Masadykov et al., 2010). After the Bush administration, there came in the Obama presidency. Prior to becoming president, Obama during his campaigns stressed on the wrongs and excesses that the Bush administration had committed regarding the American foreign policy. His stand on such issues made him popular across the whole Americans of different walks of life. He was very categorical to state that devastating effects that the terror activities have had on the whole globe generally and America in particular. He was thus very sensitive as he took notice of the political risks that would come shout the costs are overstated (Levitt, 2003). After taking the reins of power, president Obama promulgated guidelines that the pundits and analysts generally considered as clearer on what kind of force to be applied in the fight against terror and also the need to increase transparency level about the civilian casualties. At the same time, the new regime extended the fight against terrorism beyond the then known frontiers. News theatres dramatically increased and the use of drones suddenly begun to be the order of the practice (Stiles & Thayne, 2006). At the tail end of his presidency, Obama faced another challenge after the emergence the Islamist Sates (ISIS). During the hitherto rein of President Donald Trump, there is a heightened incitement that has been meted out due to the fear of terrorism. During his campaigns for presidency, he spread the narrative of being anti-Muslim immigrant the soil of the America. He vowed to target ruthlessly, terrorists who are found in the land of America (Saul, 2003). The implication of such a statement is expression permission to assassinate anyone suspected to have been a member of terror group. Trump has been very vocal in spreading alarmist rhetoric in order to pass a harsh message to the suspected or potential terrorists if any. Moreover, it is evident that the US is trying as much as possible to fight terrorism attacks using its foreign policy. For instance, in the fiscal year 2001, which was the last budget that was adopted prior to the 9/11, there was no monetary set aside for defence. However, to date, the federal spending ensures that there are sufficient funds set aside for national security, homeland security, as well as international affairs (Reyntjens, 2005). For instance, in the 2004 fiscal year, there were expenditures set aside for Iraq and Afghanistan. The US has not experienced such kind of a rapid surge in terms of national security spending since the war of terror. Even before the 9/11, America had the same happening in its history. It often faced sudden crisis, as well as tremendous exertions that involved national energy, but purposed to enhance effective counter terrorism.

2.4 Theoretical underpinnings

2.3.1 Theory on transnational justice

Transnationals justice is the manner in which countries purpose to merge during periods of conflict, in order to address systematic human rights violation, in a way that the normal justice system is not able to provide adequate response. Transnational justice roots its focus on accountability, as well as redress of victims and recognizes the dignity of all citizens. The theory of transnational theory noted that ignoring massive abuses could pose as an easy way out. However, it is evident that it destroys the values to which a decent society should be built (Slocombe, 2003). This theory questions hardly on imaginable law and politics and it signals the appropriate ways to which renewed commitment can be established, in order to ensure that ordinary citizens are protected in their home countries. In this regard, it ensures that they are safe from their country’s authorities and are as well protected from violations that may be posed by other individuals. Mass atrocities, as well as systematic abuses do devastate various societies, and this affects their legacy, which consequently makes the conditions of the country to be fragile. Institutions such as the parliament, the judiciary, prosecution service and the police may be weak, politicized, under-resourced or even unstable. In such cases, the violations will severely purpose to damage the level of confidence that might have initially existed in the country, to aim at guaranteeing rights, as well as the safety of citizens. On the other hand, communities will have ripped asunder in the process, and social as well as political organizations sound consequently be weakened (Muzaffar, 2003). The aim of finding legitimate responses to various massive violations under the constrains that are presented in a societal fragility is the foundation of what significantly defined transnational justice, as it distinguished it from the promotions of human rights and generally, defence. It is significant to take note of the fact that the complementary aims of transnational justice are as follow: First, it aims at establishing accountable institutions in a country and this would lead to restoring confidence in them. Secondly, in aims at making justice to be accessible in reality, especially in most vulnerable societies after an aftermath of any given violation (Olson, 2005). Third, it aims at ensuring that women, as well as marginalized groups of individuals in the society are given the opportunity to play a significant role, in an attempting to pursue a just society. Fourth, it aims at respecting the rule of the law. Fifth, it aims at facilitating peace processes, and also fostering a durable resolution in an instance where there is severe conflict. Sixth, it aims at establishing a basis that purposes to address various underlying causes of conflict as well as marginalization. Finally, it aims at advancing various causes of reconciliation (Orbach, 1991).

2.3.2 Social movement theory

The concern that questions why people have to protest has over the years, been occupying the minds the scientists. Towards the turn of the last century, a psychologist known as Le Bon, who is known to be the founder of collective action studies noted in his writings that all street protests are a form of deviant behaviour. This theorist developed his theory is in a crowd in France, in the 1980s, when there were political unrests (Verschuren et al., 2010). He believed that the factors that led to the destruction of political, religious, as well as social beliefs and in combination with creating new conditions of thought and existence were as a result of the then scientific, as well as industrial controversies, which formed the basis of transformation process of mankind thought. Le Bon also believed that past for past ideas, although they had been destroyed, they still needed to be regarded as powerful, whilst the ideas that were meant to replace them were still in their formation process (Shue, 1996). As a result, in his analysis, it was during the time of transition, and Le Bon ideas were then reflected in the breakdown of various theories that were regarded as a contribution in the collective action, and thus, term as unconventional, and an irrational type of behaviour. The classical paradigm also noted that relative deprivation, generalized beliefs, as well as shared grievances act as determinants of shared participation (Kissinger & Wellings, 1977). Factually, early students of this subjected perceived contentious politics as that preferred only by the impatient and as such, maintained that protest entails an irrational element to it. Time changes and the contentious politics, as well as theoretical approaches too. The late 1960s experienced enormous growth of various social movement activities and this included civil rights movement, peace movement. Environmental movement, as well as women’s movement, which all flourished. The interpretations of the main forms of collective actions significantly changes from them having to be viewed as spontaneous “irrational” outbursts, to activities of movements that have concrete goals, clearly set values, as well as rational strategies calculations (Entman, 2004). Notably, breaking down of theories fell short of explanations, immediately the proliferation of the activity of social movement, especially then it seemed to be preceded by growth, instead of a declination of welfare. A combination of this with various changing forms of collective action required theorists to come up with new theoretical approaches that could easily be understood. In deed in the 1970s, it was evident that major theorists complied that the need and come up with new theoretical approaches (Hunt, 2009). The new theoretical approaches that were introduced and were placed in the categories of structural, and constructivistic paradigms. The examples of structural approaches are resource mobilization, and also political processes. Whilst resource mobilization emphasises on organizational resources, as well as aspects, the political process emphasises on collective action and its political aspects (Krasner, 1978). On the other hand, the social constructivistic perspective concentrates on various questions regarding how individuals, as well as groups perceive and also interpret certain conditions, and also focus on the cognitive, affective, and also ideational roles onto the roots of contention. This is broadly organized around three significant concepts, which include identity, framing, as well as emotions. Notably, these terms are key concepts in social psychological protest approaches (Mearsheimer & Walt, 2007). People, as well as social psychologists purpose to maintain, and also live in a world that is perceived. They also respond to the world, in the manner that they perceive and also interpret it. The table below provides a description of why people protest, who protests, and their forms of protests. This involved classical and contemporary approaches.

3.0 Methodology

3.1 Introduction

This chapter provides the research methods, used in data collection, which aided in providing sufficient data, useful for this research. In this regard, this chapter starts by providing the research design used, then the research procedure, and finally, a definitive conclusion, which purposes to summarize it.

3.2 Research design

This study adopted a desk research, which implies that the researcher purposed to find relevant data from the already existing ones, as opposed to collecting data from self-bespoke research. Notably, this kind of research is contrary to primary research, owing to the fact that primary research involves generating data whereas desk research uses other secondary sources for analysis (Czarniawska, 2014). Desk research was preferred to any other method of data collection because of the following: first, it provides a relatively easy access to various sources of secondary data. In this regard, it is convenient and provides a significantly standardized method for generating data. Secondly, it entails low costs, as compared to primary data collection. This then implies that desk research is less expensive, as compared to when researchers are required to carry out the research themselves. Finally, the use of desk research allows the researcher to clarify the set research question. Overall, it is evident that this study put into consideration, these advantages prior to settling on desk research as the best research method to adopt (Verschuren et al., 2010).

3.3 Research procedure

This study used literature books, and journals, and as such, derived scholarly underpinnings, in order to answer the research questions, meet the study objectives, and consequently, the aim of the study. Notably, these the books and journals were derived from the school library, and from search engines such as google scholar, and ProQuest. It is significant to note that the books and journals assisted in providing significant and detailed information, which aided in establishing the background and foundation of this research. All the chapter of this research required the use of secondary sources, thus implying that the researcher had the mandate to apply secondary sources throughout the research project.

3.4 Conclusion

It is significant to note that this chapter provides the significant ways in which the research was conducted and in particular, it notes that the study adopted the use of desk research, in collecting secondary sources, to act as theoretical underpinnings that aiding in backing up the significant information in all chapters. The following chapter, which is the results and discussion chapter, provides the analysis of the information derived from the scholarly sources, which ultimately, aid in answering the research questions, thus meeting the research objectives and consequently the aim of the study.

4.0 Results and discussion

4.1 Introduction

This chapter provides the results derived from this study, and a detailed discussion, which aids in backing up the information provided as results. This will be in line with the objectives of the study. The results provided in this chapter will be derived from scholarly underpinnings and a significant discussion will as well be provided to act as back up. In this regard, this chapter will start by providing the analysis and discussion on counter terrorism, and under it, detailed information will be provided on the pre 9/11 US foreign policy cold war, the pre 9/11 US foreign policy Gulf war, the post 9/11 US foreign Policy. Thereafter, there will be the subsection on the neo-liberalism, whereby, under it, a detailed discussion on the implications before 9/11, and imperialism and pro-longed governments. Following this, a subsection of the international law UNSC 2003 will follow, and this will be sub-sectioned by detailed information on the invasion of Afghanistan, the invasion of Iraq, and the UN’s ‘Responsibility to protect.’ Finally, a definitive conclusion will purposely provide a summary of this chapter.

4.2 Counter terrorism

4.2.1 The pre 9/11 US foreign policy cold war

Prior to the 9/11 attacks, the United States had taken over the sole leading role in the world politics especially after the defeat of its political rival, the Soviet Union and its subsequent disintegration into various Republics. The Cold war actually gave the United States the impetus it required to dominate the polarized world without much difficulty, more so when it adopted the Truman Doctrine and the Marshal plan (Olson, 2005). These initiatives tilted the ground in favor of the Americans as their foreign policies got the foothold of the much required assistance that other countries, majority being the developing nations, required in order to grow their economies and military advancement. During the politics of atomic era in the United States, the then President Truman decreed an order in which checks were made necessary within the civilian service in the entire government’s bureaucracies. The fear interferences by the rival communists had spread in all places within the United States and this became manifest with the conviction of one Alger Hiss on espionage charges (Muzaffar, 2003). At the time, Mr. Hiss was a very senior state department official in the bureaucratic agencies. The fear of vicious trend occurring motivated the likes of McCarthy to capitalize on the national rage that was ever bayed against anyone who would be suspected of being a spy of the communists’ enemies. He self –proclaimed himself as the America’s only enemy as the communists were omnipresent according to his view. McCarthyism was name that was given to the time when Joseph McCarthy, the Senator for Wisconsin produced some series of investigations and hearings with the sole purpose of exposing how and the magnitude in which the communists had infiltrated various spheres of the American government. The term hitherto is known as a way of defaming someone without any premise grounded on substantiated charges (Muzaffar, 2003). During the periods of the heightened cold war, there was a continuous growing concern that the communists and their sympathizers who hovering everywhere in every corner of the United States due to the heightened tension that existed between the erstwhile allies turned rivals, that is the United States and the Soviet Union. There were actually some events that were happening very swiftly and they were to the advantage of the Soviet Union, for instance, China the world’s populous country had fallen in the hands of communist influence (Slocombe, 2003). At the same time, many European nations numbering about a half were gravitating towards the bandwagon of communists. During these periods, the news agencies were all full of gloom as they were writing speculations about the likelihood of atomic bombing occurring any time. In essence, McCarthy used the Central Intelligence Agency, being a State Department to search for the supposed communists. By virtue of the position he held in the House as the Chairman of the Committee on Government Operations in the Senate, coupled with the permanent subcommittee on investigations. For about two years in sequence, he became synonymous with his anti communist theatrics as he determined and succeeded in questioning many witnesses that cannot be numbered (Reyntjens, 2005).

These people summoned by the committee were chief suspects of sympathizers of the Communists who were labeled as enemies of the Union and loathed by all means. Inasmuch as he and the committee were zealous in their watchdog role by being witty in the manner in which he together with other members highlighted the accusations of various witnesses, there was no meaningful case that the McCarthy led committee had (Saul, 2003). The efforts he had dedicated on the matter did not yield fruits in terms of nailing suspects though the aspersions that the allegations elicited were beyond repair as many people lost their jobs because of the manner in which the committee asked the questions. Additionally, the people summoned to appear before the committee, were subjected to public ridicule and condemnation of high magnitude mercilessly (Stiles & Thayne, 2006). The impact of McCarthyism was felt in the whole of America as he enthusiastically and zealously outlined the strong cases he had against both the small and the big fish. There is actually a time that he cited about 80 cases in a day though he is alleged to have skipped several numbers and he had no proof of his allegations (Stiles & Thayne, 2006). Despite lack of proof in the accusations thereof, the Senate ordered for full investigations of the accusations that he made about the people who were out to destabilize the sovereign integrity of the United States. All this time, he had already garnered spotlight from the media and the common man and woman in the American soil. In essence, the trick and tendency that McCarthy adopted was meant to promote fascism and provide an emotional reaction on the side of the American people. However, it became to realize that he was propagating falsehood. He had an imagination that the American policy against the communists could be won with accusations and counteraccusations. Though at first he got the support of many people and the senators such as Richard Nixon and others, they later become fed up with his inconsistent claims. In fact, the House Committee on Un-American Activities targeted influential and opinion shapers of the society such as the Hollywood film industry actors, players, and producers. Several people were blacklisted for failure to attend the senate hearings (Levitt, 2003).

4.2.2 The pre 9/11 US foreign policy Gulf war

An overview of the Gulf war is that Iraq invaded Kuwait, an independent and sovereign country so as to gain control of its rich mineral (oil). After getting such a shocking revelation, the United States of America and the United Nations Security Council made an equivocal demand that the Iraqi dictator should withdraw his troops from the country they had attacked and held hostage. The Iraqi dictator refused to hear such a demand. However, after some weeks, the United States in coalition with other concerned nations descended on an intensive mission to bomb the strategic locations of Iraq (Holloway, 2008). The four day bombing later culminated to Operation Desert Storm. When the month of February ended, there was ceasefire agreement that Hussein and the concerned nations signed thus releasing Kuwait. The condition on Iraq was that it was required to submit inspections in order to be ascertained that he country did not posses any chemical or rather weapons of mass destruction (Kellner, 2003). In the analysis of the involvement of the United States in the Gulf war, the foreign policy of the nation comes into play even without the need for much emphasis. Prior to the presidency of Sadam Hussein as the leader of Iraq, the United States has had some vital influence over the political direction of Iran. It is also noteworthy that some years before, Iran and Iraq were not in good terms but during the gulf war, there was no much of enmity. After the ceasefire was signed by the Bush Administration, Kuwait was thus liberated from the hands of the intruders (Kellner, 2003). After the gulf war, Sadam Hussein was allowed to continue being in reigns his terror tendencies and history notwithstanding. The decision of not removing him from power however elicited mixed and sharp reactions from pundits and human rights activists. It is noteworthy that the decision to get involved in the gulf war was not the end of United State’s participation in the affairs in the Middle East (Mitchell & Mitchell, 2011). Instead, it suggested a hint that as the 20th century was nearing the end, Middle East as a whole was becoming increasingly a place of interest to the United States probably due to the regions active role in shaping the international markets (Mitchell & Mitchell, 2011). Saddam Hussein Lack of counter terrorist measures. Iraq as a sovereign country under the presidency of Sadam Hussein did not put mechanisms in place to combat the then increasingly militant and terror attacks in the global scenes. Rather, it precipitated the medium in which the Islamist militants carried out terror attacks on the nations they considered anti-Islam. The country provided training camps, bases of operations and other necessary combat support in terms of arms so as to fight the neighboring governments in Iran, Turkey and Palestine. Hussein had his agents spread across these nations and even beyond (Belasco, 2009). Hussein had entered into partnership with globally known terror lord such as Osama Bin Laden, the leader of the al-Qaeda terror group and allied networks. Hussein also acted in partnership with nations that the United Sates Department has listed as one of the nations that sponsor terror attacks in the world. Sadam had some strategies in place in which he executed to promote his agenda (Masadykov et al., 2010). For instance; he provided military support to the Iranian dissidents operating in the name of Mujahadeen-e-Khalq, the Kurdistan Workers’ Party, a separatist organization fighting the Turkish government, and several far-left Palestinian splinter groups that oppose peace with Israel.

Iraq also did host Abu Nidal Organization in whose top rank commander died in Baghdad in 2002. The trick that Sadam applied is secular dictatorship. He was never in the habit of supporting the Islamist terrorist. To the contrary he readily assisted the secular militants and fighters. In terms of the support that Sadam gave to the terrorists, financial support conspicuously stands out more so with regard to the activities of terror groups such as Hamas, Palestine Liberation Front, the Arab Liberation Front, Islamic Jihad, and the Palestine Liberation Front (Hunt, 2009). Iraq channeled the financial assistance also to the families of the suicide bombers. Pundits have often believed that Sadam promoted and catalyzed the Israeli- Palestinian violence with the hope that the United Sates would not have it easier to win the much necessary support that the United States needed from the Arab world so as to combat Iraq.

4.2.3 The post 9/11 US foreign Policy

After the election of George W. Bush as the President of the United States of America the incoming leader at first instance did not regard the terrorist attack threats thus casting aside the intelligence warnings from the outgoing administration. The intelligence had been widely shared within the security cycles of the government notable the pending attacks by the al-Qaeda group. However, within a short span of the events, the attacks of 9/11 defined the presidency of Bush Junior (Hunt, 2009). He termed the incident “the global war on terrorism” an undertaking that involved the torture of detainees, the incarceration of suspects in “black sites” and at a prison camp in Guantánamo Bay, the warrantless surveillance of U.S. citizens, and prolonged and costly military campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq. After the Bush administration, there came in the Obama presidency. Prior to becoming president, Obama during his campaigns stressed on the wrongs and excesses that the Bush administration had committed regarding the American foreign policy. His stand on such issues made him popular across the whole Americans of different walks of life. He was very categorical to state that devastating effects that the terror activities have had on the whole globe generally and America in particular. He was thus very sensitive as he took notice of the political risks that would come shout the costs are overstated (Krasner, 1978). After taking the reins of power, president Obama promulgated guidelines that the pundits and analysts generally considered as clearer on what kind of force to be applied in the fight against terror and also the need to increase transparency level about the civilian casualties. At the same time, the new regime extended the fight against terrorism beyond the then known frontiers (Mearsheimer & Walt, 2007). News theatres dramatically increased and the use of drones suddenly begun to be the order of the practice. At the tail end of his presidency, Obama faced another challenge after the emergence the Islamist Sates (ISIS). During the hitherto rein of President Donald Trump, there is a heightened incitement that has been meted out due to the fear of terrorism. During his campaigns for presidency, he spread the narrative of being anti-Muslim immigrant the soil of the America. He vowed to target ruthlessly, terrorists who are found in the land of America (Lindsay, 1994). The implication of such a statement is expression permission to assassinate anyone suspected to have been a member of terror group. Trump has been very vocal in spreading alarmist rhetoric in order to pass a harsh message to the suspected or potential terrorists if any.

4.3 Neo Liberalism

According to Garcia, neo-liberalism" is a set of economic policies that have become widespread during the last 25 years or so. Although the word is rarely heard in the United States, you can clearly see the effects of neo-liberalism here as the rich grow richer and the poor grow poorer.” This term can also encompass political, religious and economic ideas. Within the context of the United States, political liberalism is used to connote choreography that is aimed at preventing social conflict (Lindsay, 1994). When it comes to the working class and the poor, it is presented to mean progressiveness as compared to the rightwing or the conservative. Neo-liberalism thus means the new kind of liberalism. The old kind of liberalism was promoted and advocated by the liberal school of Economics such as the Scottish economist in the name of Adams Smith. He wrote more about this in his book, the Wealth of Nations (Pillar, 2004). The main fulcrums of neo-liberalism include the rule of the market. When the there is talk about free enterprise, the implication is that the government does not impose any bonds on the private entities social damage and effects notwithstanding. In such a situation, wages get reduced and there is de-unionization of workers and workers rights are eliminated henceforth. Additionally, cutting of public expenditure for social change is expected for instance there is adequate health care provision and education (Pillar, 2004). The safety net of the poor is likely to be reduced together with the maintenance of bridges, roads and water supplies. Also, privatization becomes the order of the day as the state owned properties and enterprises and services are sold to the private investors.

4.3.1 before 9/11

The concept of neo-liberalism gained momentum in the 1980’s but in reality, the impact was felt during the reign of President Ronald Reagan. The Reagan administration began the restructuring strategies in almost all the spheres of the economy. It is well known that the concept of geo-economics originated in America. However, the shocking revelation is that it had the capability to influence the economy and politics of America on the mere basis that it had been embedded on capitalism (Pillar, 2004).

4.3.2 Imperialism, and prolonged inversion

The United States of America was founded on a land that was occupied by the immigrants from the European nations, other American countries together with the wealthy merchants. The United States under the colonial rule agitated for independence and thereafter established a country whose bedrock is on the rule of law, liberty and freedom of conscience. This explains why it did not take part in the acquisition of colonies during the Berlin conference at the later end of the 19th century. However, with the politics of world wars, the foreign policy of the United States shifted radically from the Isolationist Doctrine to the Truman doctrine in which it took active role in the global political arena (Magdoff, 1969). After the end of the Second World War, the United States emerged as a leading super power together with the United Soviet Socialist Republic. They were viciously involved in influencing the political, military and economic affairs of the world. This led to the polarization of the world into bipolar regions, a section aligned to the United States and another siding with the Soviet Union. The United States used the opportunity to exert pressure on the colonial masters to pave ways for independence of many nations chiefly those in Africa (Jacobs & Page, 2005). One the African nations achieved their independence, the nations became the centre and ground in which the two antagonist powers flexed their prowess. One of the ways in which the United States maintained a strong hold on the political interest in the African countries and the developing nations at large was by dividing the political leaders in the middle. The United States knew that they would lose should the Africans spoke with one voice. As a result, the cold war precipitated vicious coups and civil wars in Africa such as Nigeria, Ghana, Angola, and Uganda among others (Papacharissi & de Fatima Oliveira, 2008). This was a perfect way in which the United States kept on interfering with the affairs of other countries. However, it should be noted that the United States has had the impression that they are there to promote the interest of the African and the third world countries. One of the American counties that have experienced the imperialism of the United States of America is Cuba itself. After the Cuban revolution which was undertaken by Fidel Castro, the revolutionary became defiant that he could not blindly accept the commands and the desires of the United States. There has been war of words between the two countries that have lasted for a very longtime (Pillar, 2004). The people who have the real view of the American imperialism are the native Germans. The military interventions that the United States carried out saved the world from the jaws of the Germans and Germans from themselves too. The generosity of the Americans enabled them to assist the Germans to rebuild their country (Hoffmann, 2006). Likewise, the Japans who bore the heaviest brunt of the Second World War tasted the benevolence of the Americans through the reconstruction programs that the later put in place to assist them with. Currently, under the presidency of Donald Trump, the President has made the country to get into the status of a banana republic as it only observes the agreements that he approves of. He has had the tendency of making mockery and insensitive statements that does not adhere to the international rule of law and best practice (Atran, 2003).

4.4 International Law UNSC 2003

The international law UNSC 2003 has its primary obligation of maintaining international peace, as well as security. The UNSC has a total of 15 members, and each member is granted one vote. Based on the UN Charter, all members of the UNSC are required to comply with the decisions provided by the council. The Security Council purposes to take lead in the determination of the existence of a threat that can hinder the prevailing peace (Raphael, 2009). When such is notices, the parties are called upon to solve their dispute, by peaceful means and a method of adjustment is recommended in order to facilitate settlements. In some instances, the Security Council can opt to impose sanctions, or even authorize the use of force in maintaining or restoring international security, and peace. The UNSC 2003 was unanimously adopted after all the other states reaffirmed their previous resolutions, as well as statements on the situation that was happening in (Sudan George, 1991). The resolutions made enabled more time for the United Nations to have a decision on the number troops that were needed in the region. The Council noted that there was no peace that could be instilled without justice and the need for the members to end the act of impunity. This council expressed its support to the African Union peace process that was hosted in Qatar, although it was a regret as some members did not participate. Moreover, the signing of the peace agreement between the Sudanese government and the Liberation and Justice movement was welcomed, and thus, the rest of the parties agreed to it (Tilly, 2004). The permeability of the resolution indicated that were would be no military solution to any form of conflict and that any form of human rights violation, as well as humanitarian law were to be condemned. This was to be a concern, due to the implications of the location on countries in the particular region. As such, this encouraged Sudan, Central African Republic, as well as Chad to operate, in a bid to bringing peace in Darfur.

4.4.1 Invasion of Afghanistan

Over the years, Afghanistan has been suffering from power rivalry, as well as foreign military intervention and this includes the Anglo-Afghan wars that happened in the 19th C. Since 1979, the country had been experiencing prolonged devastating conflict. For instance the Soviet military intervention, which took a period between 1979 to 1988 and in which case, there was a heavy toll, owing to the fact that the US backed the Islamic militants into a bitter conflict, conducted against the occupiers of Soviet (Miko & Froehlich, 2004). Then there was also a period of civil war, from 1988 to mid-1990s, and later a government rule by the Islamic Taliban. Finally, in the year 2001, there was a military intervention organized by the US, which was followed by violence, civil war, as well as instability. In the late 2001, the Security Council purposed to authorize the US to overthrow the government led by the Taliban, and this was to act as an offensive against the terrorist group Al-Qaeda, which was then noted to have settled in the country (Council, 2007). The Council also went ahead and authorized the United States and its NATO members to come up with the International Security Assistance Force, in order to provide military support for the then newly established western government. Notably, the US continued running a separate anti-terrorist military operation. In march, 2002, the Security Council came up with the UN Assistance Mission for Afghanistan (UNAMA), which purposed to manage the UN humanitarian, recovery, relief, as well as reconstruction activities. Despite the military-cantered activities, it is significant to note that Afghanistan still remained a failed state (Olson, 2005).

4.2.2 Invasion of Iraq

In March 2003, the US announced that diplomacy had failed and that the country would then proceed with a coalition of willingness, in order to eliminate the Iraq that were under the rule of Saddam Hussein (weapons of mass destruction, which the US had insisted that he possessed). The 2003 Invasion to Iraq, was noted a few days later. However, prior to this decision, there had been much diplomacy, as well as debate amongst the members of the UNSC over the best way that the body could deal with such a situation. In 2003, another resolution was posed to Iraq, which was referred to as the eighteenth resolution, and others were as well called the second resolution (Muzaffar, 2003). This proposed resolution was withdrawn later when it was made clear that several members of the council were not going to cast their votes on the proposed new resolution, thereby, purposing to vetoing it. In any case that occurred, it would have been more difficult for those that were wishing to invade Iraq to pose an argument that the Council had opted to authorise the subsequent invasion. However, regardless of the likely vetoes, it was evident that the coalition was at that time, not assured to affirm more votes to the council (Slocombe, 2003). The US, Spain, Britain, as well as Bulgaria were they only states that agreed to vote, yet this was short of the required number of voters. On September 16th of the year 2004, the UN secretary general, Kofi Annan made it clear that the invasion in Iraq was not in any conformity with the UN Charter, and as such, he declared it an illegal act, which aimed at undermining the international laws by use of US influenced institutions (Reyntjens, 2005).

4.2.3 UN’s ‘Responsibility to protect’

The UN has set roles, in its international collective security, having been defined in the UN charter. The UN charter authorizes the Security Council to investigate any form of threatening, which may purpose to hinder international peace. The roles of the UN are based on the foundations, created by the war on terror, and it provides the modern interventions to which the globe can maintain peace. First the UN has the responsibility of recommending new states for admission, in order to be governed by the protection body (UN) (Reyntjens, 2005). The Security Council interprets its mandates as to cover military security for all the members that it admits to the UNSC. Secondly, the UN has the responsibility of settling disputes amongst its member states. In this case, it investigates any dispute that may result into international friction and recommends significant procedures or methods of adjusting, in order to prevent the endangerment of international peace, as well as security (Muzaffar, 2003). However, the recommendations are known not to be binding as they lack an enforcement mechanism. However, some scholars argue that the directives of the Security Council only different as it has some stringent enforcement option for instance, the use of military force. Thirdly, the UN has the responsibility of deciding the necessary measures that need to be taken in certain situations that involve threats to peace, breaching of peace, or acts of aggression. In such situations the Council is not limited, but it is in a position to take action that include the use of armed force in maintaining and restoring international security, as well as peace (Slocombe, 2003). Such was the set legal basis of the UN armed action in 1950, during the Korean war, and the use of coalition in Kuwait, as well as Iraq. Overall, it is a body that aids in binding resolutions. Fourthly, the UN has the authority to refer cases to the International criminal court. The Security Council exercised this power for the first time in March 2005, when it referred to the court, the situation that was prevailing in Darfur in 2002 (Reyntjens, 2005).

5.0 Conclusion

This study majors deeply on the war on terror and the gulf war, which all involved the intervention of the US government. The war on terror launched by the US government, following the September 11 attacks against the US by the Al Qaeda, whereas the gulf war is an international conflict, triggered by the Iraq’s, having invaded Kuwait in 1990, where, the Americans invaded the Gulf, in order the reverse the Iraq Invasion. The aim of this study is to determine the reforms were made to the US foreign policy, with the aim of intensifying it after the war on terror. The study adopted a desk research, which implies that the researcher purposed to find relevant data from the already existing ones. The results derived from a secondary searcher were as follows: Prior to the 9/11, the American opinion leaders, as well as the public had mixed approaches regarding international affairs, owing to the fact that there was no single issue or concern that was then dominant. Notably, various top officials failed to consider terrorism, or rather, radical Islamism as a high priority. However, the public, as well as influential people had the belief that foreign terrorists had already posed greater risks, by deploying weapons of mass destruction against the US, than other hostile military powers. The 9/11 was the worst international attack by terrorists, which involved four coordinated aircraft hijackings. More than 3000 people were killed in the four attacks and citizens from 78 countries at the World Trade Center site perished. President Bush said in a congress that US war on terror had just began with the Al-Qaeda, but it would not end there, until the terror group will have been found, stopped and also defeated. Other nations condemned the Al-Qaeda attack and joined the US in fighting terror on various fronts such as diplomatic, intelligence, military, economic, as well as law enforcement. Up to date the Americans are still pondering over the best way to protect their nation. Notably, countering terrorism has become US’s national security priority, and it has its full support from the congress, media, American people, and great political parties. Even before the 9/11, America had the same happening in its history. It often faced sudden crisis, as well as tremendous exertions that involved national energy, but purposed to enhance effective counter terrorism. Neo liberal policies derived their footing in the US foreign policy, which leads to the growing significance of the creation of private security companies. In viewing the operations of preface capitalism, as well as foreign policy, neoliberalism is seem and it ideology at work in a professional army. Moreover, as the dust began settling in Iraq and this followed the aggressive pursuit that embarked, owing to the aftermath of the 9/11. It became increasingly evident that new imperialism emerged as much of the political discourse linked the aggressive foreign policy with the post 9/11 imperialism.

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