Campus Assault and Consent Laws

Introduction

Sexual assault has become commonplace in our society today. It is even more prevalent in our campuses thus affecting the quality of education, life and well -being of the students attending campus. Recent efforts to deal with this menace have proposed the use of affirmative consent laws. According to these laws a yes means a yes and a no means no. Threats to this affirmative law could be are people willing to verbalize their consent? When they verbalize this consent are their counterparts willing and ready to accept them. One very controversial way of giving consent is the von- verbal consent. It poses questions of how does one read with accuracy what the other person is communicating non-verbally A critical understanding of the sexual cues that denote consent in men and in women and a note of any differences are therefore fundamental.

HYPOTHESES

There will be a difference in the eye gauze patterns between the primed and the non- primed participants in the experiments There will be a difference between the eye gaze patterns between the female and male participants in the experiment There will be a difference in all fixations between the primed and the control groups of participants in the experiment. There will be a difference in gaze patterns for the primed participants who stated consent and those who stated non consent in the experiment.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The role of gaze in action coordination

Everyday interactions involve coordination among persons involved in a specific activity. For the coordination to be successful it must rely on communication and an understanding of the intent of the other persons/ persons involved in the performance of the tasks at hand and a corresponding adjustment of behavior on the part of the other to accommodate these intentions or communications (Rogers et.al 2018). Behavioral cues including but not limited to eye gaze, body language, gestures can be used to determine another person’s intentions and also act as a channel of passing ones one’s own intentions. This is true since behavioral cues can be a means of assessing the mental state, intention and attention of an individual (Yu & Smith, 2013) Eye gaze is one of the behavioral cues that can be very informative about a person’s mental state. For instance a person who is consistently gazing on an object is likely to be interested in it and may even refer to it later in their speech a gaze can be used to draw the attention of others on an object as in the case when one finds a crowd standing and gazing in one direction, a gaze may be used to communicate planned actions for instance when one intends to communicate to others that they want to leave they may probably start gazing at the watch. The gaze behavior is as a result of the unique morphology of the human eye (Rogers et.al 2018; Mott et.al 2017). Gaze behavior can be used to facilitate cooperation or to deceive. Baren- Cohen and colleagues agree that the ability to communicate with one’s eyes increases an individual’s ability to communicate. Certain emotional gaze types have even been included in the English language. These include puppy dog eyes which indicate pleading, wild eyes to indicate an erratic mind state and hungry eyes which insinuate a lustful gaze. Eye gazes are also used to facilitate turn taking during face to face conversations Different eye tracking technologies have been invented and have enabled accurate investigations of the gaze patterns. These include static eye tracking machines in which participants view carefully designed stimuli from the screen of a computer monitor (Iqbal &Bailey, 2004) There has however ben a problem in the generalization of the findings of these kind of researches despite the high control experimental data obtained since people exhibit a dual functioned gauze and are likely to change their gauze patterns should they be aware of someone monitoring them. To solve this problem mobile eye tracking technologies which allow the study of social cognition using dual eye tracking technology. The Tobii pro glasses and software’s coding for behavior such as Manngold interact have widely been used in eye tracking researches and have yielded reliable results (Rogers et.al,2018).

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Consent

Consent is an enthusiastic non coerced agreement to take part in an activity involving more than one person. This agreement can be used to facilitate the donation of an organ of a diseased person or to take part in sexual activity (Hickman & Muehlenhand, 1990) The normative roles in sex assigns men to be the initiators of sexual encounters while women on the other hand have a role of either giving consent for the sexual activity or withholding consent (Jozkowski & Peterson, 2013)This often leads many women to participate in unwanted sexual activities just in order to please their partners or just because they availed themselves in the man’s apartment or because they were skimpily dressed (Fileborn, 2016)This implies that men are more often likely to look for consent from their female counterparts than the females are. These normative roles insinuate therefore that a woman is unable to have a sexual agency and cannot pursue consent from the males (Muehlenhand et.al, 2016).They further imply that men cannot communicate their lack of consent. Consent is deemed to be a continuous process during sexual activity. This implies that one cannot base the consent of a person on a past experience in which the person involved gave their consent. It also implies that consent for one sexual activity does not necessarily mean consent for everything. This implies that consent can be withdrawn. During sexual activities consent can be verbal as well as non- verbal. Verbal consent involves use of words such as “it is okay, I am ready and we can proceed “. Non- verbal consent involves the use of body language. Non- verbal consent is fragile and is easily misread by persons in order to obtain their own selfish ends (McCall & Menston, 2006). An example is in the case where ambiguous cues are given but since one is sexually aggressive they decide to interpret it as consent. If ambiguous cues are given by a partner the best thing is to stop and obtain a verbal consent. One may also interpret non -verbal consent based upon their own use of the same, this can be misleading since the other person involved may not mean the same thing (Beres &Maitland, 2004). Verbal consent does not also escape such limitations as one may out rightly communicate what they don’t mean .Different groups of people have different preferences on how to give consent. College attending students both female and male have been found to prefer the use of non- verbal cues to communicate consent (Burkett & Hamiton, 2012) An attempt to explain this has proposed that it is probably because at this age it is considered shameful to say words such as sex or probably because they consider a verbal giving of or requesting for consent as a mood killer during such an activity. Men prefer the use non -verbal cues as a means of determining consent as opposed to women who prefer an outright verbal communication. In the same manner women expect a verbal consent from their male counterparts while the males give non-verbal consent to the female’s .It however good to note that the non-verbal consent can be misjudged and that the person initiating any sexual activity should be the one to ask for consent. Persons who are under age or under the influence of alcohol or drugs are not in a position to give consent according to the law. A misinterpretation of the non-verbal cues is also not considered a defense in sexual assault cases. Lack of resistance or silence on the part of a partner during an escalation of a sexual activity is not considered consent. Non consent includes an unfavorable state of a person mind like being drunk, saying an explicit no, fighting back, coiling away, pleading for someone to stop and being silent Reasons why women consent to unwanted sex range from the societal expectation that they are not supposed to say no for this is not deemed sufficient explanation for their lack of interest. Some feel that if the refuse to consent it may lead to other forms of physical abuse from their counterparts who may not be willing to take a no for an answer. Some give in because they have a history of being coerced into sexual encounters although they did not wish to participate in them (Van Der Made et.al, 2009). Men on the other hand tend to continue their sexual advances even after an explicit no as they assume that the refusal by the women are just but token refusals or that they can just work their way into a Yes from the woman (Jozkowski & Peterson, 2013). The other problem associated with non- verbal consent is that our brains tend to guess what we feel is true. This also explains that a person is more likely to see what they want to see even if it does not exist. A smile for example as a non -verbal cue can mean several things which range from I agree, am embarrassed or I am skimming something bad towards you or perhaps I don’t have an option but play along since this may bring unwanted consequences like rape. In the same way if someone shakes their head they may imply disbelief or a no (Muehlenhand et.al, 2016).

Sexual cues

Sexual desire in humans are as a result of the following factors psychological intimacy; falling in love viewing or listening to pornographic material reading about persons with stories of explicit sexual enjoyment, falling in love viewing, watching a romantic sequence in the presence of someone you like, wanting to be pregnant, having taken low doses of street drugs; being unlighted, coming to terms after a troublesome period in a relationship, and the cure of a previous sexual dysfunction and external cues which include romantic and erotic sexual escapades, wearing provocative clothing, listening to sexy music and participating in activities such as swimming when naked (Jozkowski & Peterson, 2013) Sexual desire is defined as the sum of factors that make individuals inclined towards or against sex. Satisfaction in relationships has been linked to a higher sexual desire and a corresponding sexual frequency. For women, emotional cues such as desire to express love, desire for intimacy and attachment mingled by physical cues such as attractiveness of the partner, provision and experiencing pleasure are some of the sexual cues which explain their participation in sexual activities. Other sexual cues in women which are also important in influencing sexual desire are daydreaming about sex, being aware that their partner is aroused, an intentional focus on sexual activity These sexual cues predicts sexual desire in women. Body language and gaze pattern can be used as sexual cues (Muehlenhand et.al, 2016).

Priming

Priming is an unconscious influence on a person’s mind by exposing them to a stimulus which influences the way they perform a given task or react when exposed to another stimulus (Tulving &Schacter, 1990) It has been shown through research that priming indeed affects the reactions of persons. In a bid to understand how priming works it has been established that it may be dependent on other parts of the brain other than those responsible the declarative memory such as the medial temporary lobe (Henson, 2003). It may be arising from the multiple cortical regions which are primarily responsible for the processing of concepts and perceptions. A word stem completion paradigm is used to show that priming takes place. The participants of this test are exposed to certain words here referred as stem (Horne & Henson, 2008) They are the required to complete another test in which they are supposed to fill the blanks in a three letter word without being informed that the previous word were to be tested in the subsequent test. Amnestic patients also exhibit priming of the same level as the control. An interesting thing about priming is that it occurs after only one short term exposure to a stimulus implying that it does not require consistent training (Schacter & Buckner, 1998) In a bid to identify the part of the brain responsible for the priming effect different studies have been carried using the word-stem completion paradigm. These studies indicate that priming is not as a result of conscious memory and arises from a number of cortical lobes without the medial temporary lobe. It is associated with plasticity and reduced neural activity in the regions which include the left inferior temporal and occipital regions which are associated with reading of words. Priming occurs rapidly and automatically (Henson, 2003). Priming is also measured using latency to identify objects presented in form of pictures. The priming effect produced in this manner is confirmed to be able to last foe even more than year. Semantic priming is also used as a measure of priming. It involves the use prime words which precede the response to a probe word. An example is when a prime word such as heaven is given and one asked to provide another word starting with H they are more likely to say Hell as opposed to hill (Kuzyakov et.al, 2000).Semantic priming has been found to be short lived. Sublimal priming involves a very short term exposure of individuals to priming (Henson, 2003)

METHODOLOGY

The experiment was carried out using the Tobi Eye-tracking glasses. This involved a tracking of the eye gaze patterns of different groups which include females and males. The males and females were primed, non- primed or part of the control. Priming was done by telling the primed group to be looking for sexual consent in a number of still images. The control groups were not aware of what they were looking for in the still images and were only told what they were looking for at the end of the experiment. The still images were images of both men and women. The data obtained was then analyzed on SPSS.

ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

Comparison between Prime and Non-Prime

Fixation Female Eye

The mean fixation female eye for Prime was coming out to be 29.0 and that for non-prime was 23.45. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 1.775; p = 0.081. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.081, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female eye between prime and non-prime.

Fixation Male Eye

The mean fixation male eye for Prime was coming out to be 14.17 and that for non-prime was 12.84. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 0.709; p = 0.481. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.481, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male eye between prime and non-prime.

Fixation Female Lip

The mean fixation female lip for Prime was coming out to be 15.55 and that for non-prime was 12.29. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 1.371; p = 0.176. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.176, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female lip between prime and non-prime.

Fixation Male Lip

The mean fixation male lip for Prime was coming out to be 6.31 and that for non-prime was 4.32. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 1.659; p = 0.102. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.102, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male lip between prime and non-prime.

Fixation Female Face

The mean fixation female face for Prime was coming out to be 27.24 and that for non-prime was 24.32. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 1.426; p = 0.159. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.159, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female face between prime and non-prime.

Fixation Male Face

The mean fixation male face for Prime was coming out to be 25.31 and that for non-prime was 23.19. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 1.092; p = 0.279. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.279, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male face between prime and non-prime.

Fixation Female Total

The mean fixation female total for Prime was coming out to be 31.76 and that for non-prime was 28.35. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 1.513; p = 0.136. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.136, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female total between prime and non-prime.

Fixation Male Total

The mean fixation male total for Prime was coming out to be 41.72 and that for non-prime was 39.97. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 0.621; p = 0.537. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.537, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male total between prime and non-prime.

Fixation Female Body

The mean fixation female body for Prime was coming out to be 4.52 and that for non-prime was 4.03. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 0.794; p = 0.430. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.430, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female body between prime and non-prime.

Fixation Male Body

The mean fixation male body for Prime was coming out to be 16.41 and that for non-prime was 16.77. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = -0.290; p = 0.773. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.773, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male body between prime and non-prime.

Dwell Time Female Eye

The mean dwell time female eye for Prime was coming out to be 18117.66 and that for non-prime was 15962.39. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 1.046; p = 0.300. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.906, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time female eye between prime and non-prime.

Dwell Time Male Eye

The mean dwell time male eye for Prime was coming out to be 7966.34 and that for non-prime was 8127.55. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = -0.119; p = 0.906. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.906, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male eye between prime and non-prime.

Dwell Time Female Lip

The mean dwell time female lip for Prime was coming out to be 7637.0 and that for non-prime was 5552.52. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 1.936; p = 0.058. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.058, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time female lip between prime and non-prime.

Dwell Time Male lip

The mean dwell time male lip for Prime was coming out to be 2502.07 and that for non-prime was 2060.68. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 0.683; p = 0.497. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.497, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male lip between prime and non-prime.

Dwell Time Female Face

The mean dwell time female face for Prime was coming out to be 28388.76 and that for non-prime was 25700.52. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 1.174; p = 0.245. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.245, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time female face between prime and non-prime.

Dwell Time Male Face

The mean dwell time male face for Prime was coming out to be 18084.97 and that for non-prime was 18505.81. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = -0.272; p = 0.786. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.786, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male face between prime and non-prime.

Dwell Time Female Total

The mean dwell time female total for Prime was coming out to be 30644.48 and that for non-prime was 27619.0. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 1.377; p = 0.174. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.174, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time female total between prime and non-prime.

Dwell Time Male Total

The mean dwell time male total for Prime was coming out to be 27670.83 and that for non-prime was 28900.48. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = -0.593; p = 0.555. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.555, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male total between prime and non-prime.

Dwell Time Female Body

The mean dwell time female body for Prime was coming out to be 2255.72 and that for non-prime was 1918.48. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = 0.974; p = 0.334. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.334, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time female body between prime and non-prime.

Dwell Time Male Body

The mean dwell time male body for Prime was coming out to be 9585.86 and that for non-prime was 10394.87. Further, as per independent t-test, t(58) = -0.739; p = 0.463. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.463, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male body between prime and non-prime.

Comparison between Male and Female

Fixation Female Eye

The mean fixation female eye for Male was coming out to be 22.50 and that for female was 30.48. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -2.634; p = 0.011. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.011, which is less than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is a statistically significant difference in fixation female eye between male and female. Mean Fixation female eye was statistically significantly higher for female as compared to male.

Fixation Male Eye

The mean fixation male eye for Male was coming out to be 12.70, and that for female was 14.59. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -1.003; p = 0.320. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.320, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male eye between male and female.

Fixation Female Lip

The mean fixation female lip for Male was coming out to be 12.90, and that for female was 15.10. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -0.907; p = 0.368. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.368, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male eye between male and female.

Fixation Male Lip

The mean fixation male lip for Male was coming out to be 5.0 and that for female was 5.45. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -0.362; p = 0.719. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.719, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male lip between male and female.

Fixation Female Face

The mean fixation female face for Male was coming out to be 25.63 and that for female was 26.28. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -0.311; p = 0.757. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.757, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female face between male and female.

Fixation Male Face

The mean fixation male face for Male was coming out to be 24.17 and that for female was 24.48. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -0.160; p = 0.874. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.874, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male face between male and female.

Fixation Female Total

The mean fixation female total for Male was coming out to be 30.0, and that for female was 30.48. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -0.212; p = 0.833. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.833, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female total between male and female.

Fixation Male Total

The mean fixation male total for Male was coming out to be 40.63, and that for female was 41.59. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -0.337; p = 0.737. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.737, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male total between male and female.

Fixation Female Body

The mean fixation female body for Male was coming out to be 4.37 and that for female was 4.21. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = 0.257; p = 0.798. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.798, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female body between male and female.

Fixation Male Body

The mean fixation male body for Male was coming out to be 16.47 and that for female was 17.10. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -0.528; p = 0.600. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.600, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male body between male and female.

Dwell Time Female Eye

The mean dwell time female eye for Male was coming out to be 14321.07 and that for female was 20004.31. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -2.896; p = 0.005. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.005, which is less than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is a statistically significant difference in dwell time female eye between male and female. Dwell time female eye is statistically significantly high for female as compared to male.

Dwell Time Male Eye

The mean dwell time male eye for Male was coming out to be 7423.83 and that for female was 8914.34. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -1.108; p = 0.273. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.273, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male eye between male and female.

Dwell Time Female Lip

The mean dwell time female lip for Male was coming out to be 6262.37 and that for female was 6886.34. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -0.554; p = 0.582. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.582, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time female lip between male and female.

Dwell Time Male lip

The mean dwell time male lip for Male was coming out to be 2526.07 and that for female was 1936.72. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = 0.906; p = 0.369. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.369, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male lip between male and female.

Dwell Time Female Face

The mean dwell time female face for Male was coming out to be 24836.70 and that for female was 29484.28. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -2.056; p = 0.044. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.044, which is less than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is a statistically significant difference in dwell time female face between male and female. Dwell time female face is statistically significantly higher for female as compared to male.

Dwell Time Male Face

The mean dwell time male face for Male was coming out to be 17749.97 and that for female was 18993.86. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -0.798; p = 0.428. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.428, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male face between male and female.

Dwell Time Female Total

The mean dwell time female total for Male was coming out to be 26993.63 and that for female was 31465.69. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -2.052; p = 0.045. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.045, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is a statistically significant difference in dwell time female total between male and female. Dwell time female total is statistically significantly high for female as compared to male.

Dwell Time Male Total

The mean dwell time male total for Male was coming out to be 26730.23 and that for female was 29789.07. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -1.478; p = 0.145. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.145, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male total between male and female.

Dwell Time Female Body

The mean dwell time female body for Male was coming out to be 2156.93 and that for female was 1981.41. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = 0.497; p = 0.621. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.621, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time female body between male and female.

Dwell Time Male Body

The mean dwell time male body for Male was coming out to be 8980.27 and that for female was 10795.21. Further, as per independent t-test, t(57) = -1.714; p = 0.092. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.092, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male body between male and female.

Comparison between Consent and Non-Consent in Prime

Fixation Female Eye

The mean fixation female eye for Consent was coming out to be 26.80 and that for non-consent was 29.46. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = -0.409; p = 0.686. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.686, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female eye between consent and non-consent.

Fixation Male Eye

The mean fixation male eye for Consent was coming out to be 16.40 and that for non-consent was 13.71. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = 0.781; p = 0.441. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.441, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male eye between consent and non-consent.

Fixation Female Lip

The mean fixation female lip for Consent was coming out to be 12.0 and that for non-consent was 16.29. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = -0807; p = 0.427. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.427, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female lip between consent and non-consent.

Fixation Male Lip

The mean fixation male lip for Consent was coming out to be 6.80 and that for non-consent was 6.21. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = 0.204; p = 0.804. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.804, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male lip between consent and non-consent.

Fixation Female Face

The mean fixation female face for Consent was coming out to be 30.60 and that for non-consent was 26.54. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = 1.058; p = 0.299. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.299, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female face between consent and non-consent.

Fixation Male Face

The mean fixation male face for Consent was coming out to be 28.60 and that for non-consent was 24.63. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = 1.124; p = 0.271. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.271, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male face between consent and non-consent.

Fixation Female Total

The mean fixation female total for Consent was coming out to be 35.80 and that for non-consent was 30.92. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = 1.164; p = 0.255. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.255, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female total between consent and non-consent.

Fixation Male Total

The mean fixation male total for Consent was coming out to be 46.20 and that for non-consent was 40.79. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = 1.087; p = 0.287. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.287, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male total between consent and non-consent.

Fixation Female Body

The mean fixation female body for Consent was coming out to be 5.20 and that for non-consent was 4.38. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = 0.657; p = 0.517. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.517, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female body between consent and non-consent.

Fixation Male Body

The mean fixation male body for Consent was coming out to be 17.60 and that for non-consent was 16.17. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = 0.694; p = 0.494. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.694, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male body between consent and non-consent.

Dwell Time Female Eye

The mean dwell time female eye for Consent was coming out to be 14926.20 and that for non-consent was 18782.54. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = -1.262; p = 0.218. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.218, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time female eye between consent and non-consent.

Dwell Time Male Eye

The mean dwell time male eye for Consent was coming out to be 10240.60 and that for non-consent was 7492.54. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = 1.082; p = 0.289. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.289, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male eye between consent and non-consent.

Dwell Time Female Lip

The mean dwell time female lip for Consent was coming out to be 6314.0 and that for non-consent was 7912.63. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = -0.656; p = 0.517. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.517, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time female lip between consent and non-consent.

Dwell Time Male lip

The mean dwell time male lip for Consent was coming out to be 3108.40 and that for non-consent was 2375.75. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = 0.519; p = 0.608. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.608, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male lip between consent and non-consent.

Dwell Time Female Face

The mean dwell time female face for Consent was coming out to be 23259.0 and that for non-consent was 29457.46. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = -1.448; p = 0.159. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.159, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time female face between consent and non-consent.

Dwell Time Male Face

The mean dwell time male face for Consent was coming out to be 21929.4 and that for non-consent was 17284.04. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = 1.643; p = 0.112. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.112, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male face between consent and non-consent.

Dwell Time Female Total

The mean dwell time female total for Consent was coming out to be 25557.80 and that for non-consent was 31704.21. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = -1.542; p = 0.135. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.135, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time female total between consent and non-consent.

Dwell Time Male Total

The mean dwell time male total for Consent was coming out to be 30650.0 and that for non-consent was 27050.17. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = 1.061; p = 0.298. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.298, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male total between consent and non-consent.

Dwell Time Female Body

The mean dwell time female body for Consent was coming out to be 2298.80 and that for non-consent was 2246.75. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = 0.072; p = 0.943. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.943, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time female body between consent and non-consent.

Dwell Time Male Body

The mean dwell time male body for Consent was coming out to be 8720.60 and that for non-consent was 9766.13. Further, as per independent t-test, t(27) = --0.581; p = 0.566. Since the p-value or the significance value is coming out to be 0.566, which is greater than the critical alpha value of 0.05. It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male body between consent and non-consent.

DISCUSSION

From the analysis of the data obtained from the experiment on SPSS it is evident that the primed participants spent more time or had more dwell time on the still images of the female faces than did the non- primed participants. This is expected since priming had made them aware of what exactly they were looking for and thus since they were looking for consent in the still images they focused on one of the cues of consent which is facial expressions. Their focus oon identifying sexual consent and their reaction to it was evident by what they fixed their eyes on as identified by their dwell time on different parts of the body when the experiment was carried out. The primed participants were found to concentrate on the lips of the women in the still images probably looking for sexual consent cues such as a smile of passion in the pictures. The non- primed participants did not know exactly what to look for and seemingly were just watching the still images without any focus on any cues that could denote sexual consent. It however found that the differences in these fixations between the primed and the non-primed participants was not statistically significant and this can be attributed to the fact that even though the primed participants were td to be looking for sexual cues they were not informed on exactly what cues they were to look for. For instance they may have concentrated on things such as the physical attractiveness of the still images including body language the type of attire worn for example skimpy dresses. Thus they might have missed out on the real things being tested. This is possible since they were looking at just still images and thus dealing with non-verbal consent they were unable to rightfully decode the cues. This is explained because non-verbal cues could sometimes be ambiguous since they differ from one person to another. This further concurs with research which has found non- verbal sexual cues to be limited as a means of determining consent. It was found that there is a statistically significant difference in fixation female eye between male and female. Mean Fixation female eye was statistically significantly higher for female as compared to male and that dwell time female eye is statistically significantly high for female as compared to male and dwell time female face is statistically significantly higher for female as compared to male and dwell time female total is statistically significantly high for female as compared to male and It can be said that there is no statistically significant difference in dwell time male total between male and female. In most societies men have been socialized to initiate sexual intimacy while women on the other hand ought to act as gatekeepers either authorizing the sexual activity to proceed or withholding their permission of the same. This has given men more opportunities to push women into accepting these activities. It has also led to a situation where men are more dependent on the non-verbal cues to determine sexual consent and may sometimes proceed without obtaining clear consent. Women on the other hand view consent to be very important and expect the men to give to men and receive from them clear verbal or non-verbal cues. The expectation of women when it comes to consent may explain the dwell time they spent on the faces and eyes of the females in the still images. It is possible that they wanted to be surer about whether these women really were depicting sexual consent or not. Men on the other did not dwell much on the still images before coming up with their decisions of consent or non –consent.

From the analysis of the results it was also found that there is no statistically significant difference in fixation female face between male and female, there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male lip between male and female, there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male eye between male and female, there is no statistically significant difference in fixation male eye between male and female. The results above indicate that there is no statistically significant difference in the dwell time on different parts, lips, face and eyes between male and female participants. There is no statistically significant difference in the dwell time on body parts of the still images which are lips, face and eyes between male and female participants. This can infer that both the males and females thought about the ability of different body parts to convey sexual consent in the same way. It was found that there is no statistically significant difference in the eye fixations between the test population of the primed participants who stated consent and those who stated non consent. This implies that they recorded the same gaze patterns and probably the same conclusions but decided to deliberately lie about their conclusions or they interpreted the non- verbal cues differently. Psychologists have found out that people may intentionally lie about what they think or what they infer from a particular situation. The lie can be verbally communicated or can be achieved by creating false information through body language. This is because the issue at hand may be extremely important to them while the rest of the people are treating it casually, in order to get a reaction they are seeking for an example in this case could be not to appear perverse, probably the ones who reported consent lied so that to impress the researcher as the research was looking for consent and they were aware and some lie because they wish the lie was true an example can be some of the primed participants reporting consent because they think the still images looked attractive to them. These can be measured statistically through the observations of eye gaze patterns. These eye gaze patterns can be used since research has shown that by analyzing the gaze of an individual you may be able to tell the emotions going through their heads. There is also a difference in eye gaze patterns between females and males. The females had more fixation time than the males.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion from the study presented above there are differences in the sexual consent cues between males and females as there are differences in the eye fixation patterns between the males and female. The females showed a greater fixation on the female face and eyes than the men. Priming is also found to be effective as it has affected the dwell time of the individuals who were primed. There is a difference in eye gaze patterns between the primed and non- primed participants. There was no difference in the fixations of the primed participants who reported consent.

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