The Globalization Debate: Impact Analysis

Chapter 1

1.0 Introduction

Currently, globalization is spoken about by many. In the past two decades, the subject of globalization has earned the attention of people worldwide, with scholars, governments, economists and the business community engaging in research to evaluate various intricate issues surrounding globalization. Equally, conferences, seminars, and dialogues have been held by non-governmental organizations and educational institutions such as universities and colleges on the issues of globalization, its effects, how it shapes the current society, its advantages and disadvantages. Moreover, globalization has emerged as one of the most discussed subjects in global forums; a key area of discussion being the identification of the losers and gainers of globalization. When governments and policymakers understand the real losers and gainers of globalization, they are able to engage in strategic plans aimed at addressing the challenges that accompany globalization. A section of scholars is of the view that globalization is stage managed by the West and directed towards other countries, especially the underdeveloped and developing countries of the world. It impacts on various areas of human life such as culture, economy, sociology, and politics. Nonetheless, globalization started several years ago and is currently advancing, especially in the wake of technology. According to Young (2001), it is a phenomenon with various facets which touch on nearly all, if not all areas of human life. Because globalization originated in the West, underdeveloped and developed countries are keen to establish whether globalization can be of benefit to them. Within this chapter of the study, there will be a detailed exploration of the background of globalization in the context of Islam and Muslim culture.

1.2 The Concept of Globalization

Whereas the concept of globalization was common in the 1990s, it is currently a dominant one. Today, scholars can analyse everything and refer to anything using this concept. Nonetheless, globalization refers to a united global community, i.e. it is a free community characterized by a free business with no barriers to access to capital, a free global community where there are uniform services, taxes, and interaction between cultures with a level of homogeneity happening on a global scale (Robertson, 2001). While computer technology has currently taken a centre stage in the definition of globalization, it is not the only phenomenon that characterizes and enables the existence of globalization. Rather, globalization is a complex concept with cultural, economic, philosophical technological and political dimensions. Whereas globalization was sparked off by an economic approach about 20 years ago, today’s globalization has its main dimensions gravitated on education, culture, and politics. Ideally, it can be a source of positive and negative changes in culture and education, besides being subversive and threatening to other systems. According to Sadjadi (2003), globalization can even shape or destroy the cultural and educational identity of a society. In a global perspective, the advent of the 21st century played an important role in changing the history of mankind as a result of a transformation of every aspect of human life in almost all corners of the world. Today, the world is said to be borderless Adibi (2006), characterized by the elimination of political and geographical boundaries through technology. Moreover, scholars (e.g. Iranzade 2001; Bagheri 2004) say that the mankind is living in a global village where people communicate in a faster and efficiently. However, globalization has caused various changes and rapidly transformed the fields of education, culture, economics and social structure (Chandra, 2002).

1.3 Statement of the Problem

After the end of cold war, communism collapsed, creating an opportunity for the development of liberal capitalism and democracy. As a result, based on the arguments of Ali (n.d), the Muslim world became more liberal and open to basic liberties, freedom of individual, freedom of expression and democracy. These occurred while prominent western countries such as the United States spread and are still spreading their culture around the world. However, this is unfortunate for Muslims as a majority of them still do not understand the true meaning of the globalization and the impacts it has on their culture and education. It seems that Muslims are caught up in a confusion of whether to embrace the Western culture spread by globalization or not. Hence, it is important to inform the Muslims and make them have a comprehensive understanding of the impacts of globalization on their culture so that they are able to make informed decisions when relocating the current positions of their culture and aligning their education system into the global system.

1.4 Study Aim

Looking for further insights on Understanding Homelessness in Britain? Click here.

The main aim of this study is to evaluate the impacts of globalization on Islam culture and education. It identifies and evaluates the opportunities and challenges presented by globalization come up with some of the appropriate ways in which Muslims can respond to these challenges and opportunities. This study also identifies whether certain aspects of globalization are good for the Muslim culture and whether globalization can bring about social unity in a Muslim context. Ideally, the discussions in this study are aimed to enhance and develop Muslim cultural elements without necessarily losing the Islamic cultural identity.

Continue your journey with our comprehensive guide to Challenges of Ageing.

1.5 Research Objectives

To identify the impacts of globalization on Muslim culture and education

To evaluate how western culture penetrated into the Eastern culture

To explore the role of globalization in spreading neo-colonialism in the Eastern culture

1.6 Research Questions

What are the impacts of globalization on Muslim culture and education?

How does the western culture penetrate the Eastern culture?

What is the role of globalization in spreading neo-colonialism in the Eastern culture?

Chapter 2

2.0 Theoretical Framework

An increasingly growing trend in social science research is to understand research problems through the perspectives of various disciplines. Evaluating various theories underpinning the research study is one way to ensure that the researcher understands how various theories inform the study. Ideally, theories are formed to understand, predict and explain phenomena, as well as to challenge existing knowledge and assumptions on a subject matter. Hence, in this study, the theoretical framework establishes a structure through which various theories of globalization can be used to explain its impacts on the Muslim culture and education. Herein, there will be an introduction and explanation of the various theories of globalization including the theory of liberalism, the theory of political realism, the theory of postmodernism and the theory of transformationalism.

2.1 The Theory of Liberalism

This theory holds that the process of globalization is an extension of modernization enhances by market structures. According to Marguerite (2007), it suggests that globalization spreads as a result of the human desire for political liberty and economic welfare. Hence, the connectivity that characterizes globalization emanated from the human quest to satisfy their need for basic freedom and material needs. Similarly, the theory assumes that globalization advances through technological development in areas such as information transfer and transport, as well as the development of effective institutional and legal arrangements that facilitate liberal democracy and markets to spread globally (Shiraey, 2014). This study draws from the theory of liberalism to argue that the process globalization may have a great role in spreading the western culture into the Easter culture as a result of the human desire for economic welfare. The theory’s emphasis on political liberty and economic welfare is useful in this study’s analysis of the impacts of globalization on Muslim culture as it enables an evaluation of the ways in which quest for economic welfare through globally recognized education has changed the Muslim system of education. To this end, the theory’s conceptualization of how globalization results from human’s quest to satisfy their need for economic welfare is generative for grasping how the Muslim education system and cultural actives have undergone a transformation to resonate with the global village.

2.2 The Theory of Political Realism

This theory has interests in a quest for national interest, state power and the conflict between various nations or states. According to Hans (1978), proponents of this theory hold that nations and states are self-serving and are always in competition for power. Some scholars who believe in this theory also assume that there is always a balance of power where attempts by one state to achieve global dominance encounters resistance from other countries. Moreover, proponents of this theory suggest that dominant states are in constant efforts to bring stability to the world order as currently exemplified by the G7/G8 states which tend to define and maintain international institutions and rules that promote their own interest while containing the emergence of conflicts among other states. Ideally, based on the theory of political realism, globalization is perceived as a strategy used by powerful states to contest for power and dominance over the world. Political realists majorly concentrate the activities of major states such as Japan, USA, Britain, and France, highlighting issues of power struggles and how states generate global relations. According to Raymond (1966), they believe that in the face of globalization, states are not equal because some dominate while others are treated as subordinates. Believers in the theory of political realism also argue that globalization has an economic, cultural and ecological dimension. This means that globalization entails resource production and consumption, affirmation of cultural identity and the idealization of how humans are shaped by nature. Against this background, this study draws from the theory of political idealism to make an argument that the struggle by states for global dominance plays a major role in generating global conflict between the West and the East. The theory’s emphasis on how some nations are self-serving is especially useful as it enlightens that evaluation of the role of prominent western states such as the USA in globalization as they struggle to spread their culture and dominance in other states especially those in the East. To this end, the conceptualization of how attempts by some states to achieve global dominance encounters resistance from other states is generative in grasping how the East has made several attempts to stop the cultural invasion of the west.

2.3 The Theory of Postmodernism

Proponents of this theory perceive globalization with respect to structural power as an enabler of knowledge, norms, and identities. According to Ruth (1989), these elements are grouped under ‘postmodernism’ and aid in understanding the society on the premises of knowledge power and how certain knowledge structures are instrumental in the development of certain hierarchies of power. This knowledge power gives some states and cultures the authority to subordinate other cultures, and the truth claims made by some states are meant to gain political power, leading to various conditions that contribute to the development and spread of globalization. Drawing from the theory of postmodernism, it is possible to make an argument that knowledge power has put some states and cultures on the higher hierarchy of power than others. The theory’s emphasis on how some knowledge claims are used by states to gain power over others is useful in this study’s analysis of how the western culture and education is adopted in the East based on the perception that the western education is superior.

2.4 The Theory of Trans-Formationalism

Believers in this theory argue that globalization entails an increased relationship between cultural, economic and political matters across the globe. According to Sklair (2002), they define globalization as a culmination of various processes that entail a transformation of transactions and social relations within the framework of interregional and intercontinental networks, power and interactions. Smith (1990) argues that this theory seems to bring together various contradicting theories of globalization that categorize the phenomenon into the sceptic, hyper-globalist and transformationalist categories. According to Tomlinson (1999), the hyperglobalists suggest that the global population is constantly under the influence of the global marketplace characterized by intergovernmental organizations and multinational enterprises which play a major role in the regulation of global political activities. Hence, the theory of transformationalism, under the category of hyperglobalism is useful to make the argument that globalization has a major role in the transformation of various cultural aspects of the Muslim society, regardless of whether these changes are negative or positive.

2.5 Different Definitions of Globalization

Based on their understanding of what globalization is; scholars have taken various approaches to explain what globalization means and entails. From a historical perspective, the term ‘globalization’, according to Razak (2011), was first mentioned by Ronald Robertson who believes that globalization emerged in the 15th century alongside the development of European colonial policy of expansion into most parts of Africa and Asia. Through colonization, western powers were keen to expand their influence and power on underdeveloped countries to propagate Christianity to Africans and Asians whom they thought had high levels of animistic beliefs (Al-Roubaie, 2002). While coming to Asia and other parts of the world, the Europeans brought along their systems of administration, culture, language, and customs which their subordinates had to adhere to. According to Bagheri (2004), they were able to impose their hegemony on their colonies after managing to establish themselves as strong controllers of the resources in those colonies. While questions have been raised on the ethical nature of engaging in territorial colonization, the Westerners, as Adibi (2006) illustrates, have argued that the countries they colonized were either underdeveloped or primitive, and this has formed a basis for justifying colonization. Hence, their presence in those colonies, as they claim, was to provide education, knowledge, culture, development, and progress. Hence, the Westerners justify colonization as a means of civilizing the uncivilized nations. Apart from the historical evidence of globalization as a topic, literature revieals mentions 5 different meanings of globalization. The first meaning is that globalization is a substitute word for internationalization, forming the basis for understanding the emergence of international dependence and exchange among countries worldwide. The second definition is that globalization also means liberalization characterised by the removal of various restrictions and the establishment of a borderless economy. Thirdly, globalization means universalization whereby people’s experiences and objects are spread to every part of the world. The penultimate definition of globalization is that globalization also means modernization or westernization of the world society in a process whereby the western culture replaces the pre-existing culture in developing and underdeveloped countries. the final definition of globalization is deterritorialization which involves the transfer of events and incidences happening in region of the world to the other regions through technology and telecommunication. Nonetheless, current scholars in the field or globalization define it as the free flow of people, news, capital and information from one part of the world to the other through electronic media without encountering any form of government restrictions. It explains the ability of people to live in a borderless world with no geographical restrictions, transforming the world into a single global village.

Chapter 3

3.0 Study Methodology

3.1 The narrative Literature Review Method

As opposed to systematic literature reviews (SR) which involves the formulation of properly defined research questions while providing both qualitative and quantitative evaluation of available evidence, narrative literature reviews (NR) involve the identification of solutions to one or more research questions (Yuan & Hunt, 2009: 1087). Thus this study relied on narrative literature review research methodology to explore globalization and its impacts on Muslim culture and education. In doing so, this study mainly involved library research and the critical analysis of texts relevant to the topic which shall include but not limited to journals, articles, and scholarly works. According to Lewis (2015n.p), literature review involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data from existing pieces of literature from previous research. The literature review was deemed appropriate for this study because it facilitates a deeper understanding of the topic under investigation based on the findings of different researchers (Ioannidis et al. 2015; 168). Hence, the study relied on the findings of other previously conducted research studies on the impact of XTP on human identity, to answer its research questions.

3.2 Literature Search

There was a systematic selection and retrieval of peer-reviewed journal articles from online databases such as EBSCO, JSTOR, and ProQuest. The study preferred online databases to physical research in the library because, with online databases, the search for journal articles would be relatively simpler compared to books and material sources from the library. Moreover, the selected databases were preferred due to their relevance to political science and international relations comprising of a wide range of literature (Ragin, 2014n.p; Creswell, 2017n.p).

3.3 Search terms

Gasparyan et al (2011:1410) argue that there should be a comprehensive establishment of the search terms/keywords in any research paper because they define the nature and limits of the literature search process. Moreover, search terms are useful in the selection of all the relevant sources of literature data in the sense that through the search terms, the researcher is able to eliminate the sources that are irrelevant and keep those that are relevant to the study (Lewis, 2015n.p). Hence, in the present study, the selected keywords included: impact, internationalization, globalization, culture, and education. It is important to note that the search terms were derived through a transformation of the key concepts within the research topic. Ultimately, the study made use of various systems such as the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) to ensure that there was a selection of search terms directly related to the topic of study. To yield an effective search strategy by organizing the search terms, the study applied Boolean operators such as “AND” and “OR”. These operators were used to create precision in the search process and combine terms for purposes of promoting sensitivity and specificity during the search process (Yuan & Hunt, 2009: 1087). For instance, “OR” was used to broaden the search process through the inclusion of connected or similar information such as globalization OR internationalization. On the other hand, “AND” was used to narrow the search process by combining various words such as globalization AND culture.

3.4 Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria

Green et al (2006:102) argue that it is helpful to define the selection criteria used during literature selection in order to ensure that the collected sources are relevant to the research study. Hence, the inclusion criteria in the present study were the characteristics of the sources which qualified them to be included in the study and reflected the review’s fundamental factors. On the other hand, the exclusion criteria define the characteristics of the sources that could not resonate with or help achieve the research objectives. Therefore, the following constituted the inclusion criteria:

Studies written in English language Peer-reviewed journal articles Studies retrievable in full-text Academic papers

To explain further, only the studies written in the English language were included in the literature review to enable effective reading and understanding of the information for purposes of proper interpretation of the literature material. Likewise, the study only admitted peer-reviewed journal articles in order to ensure that there was a collection of relevant data to answer the research questions. The penultimate criterion was that only the material which could be retrieved in full-text was admitted. This was for the purpose of ensuring that the researcher could be able to conduct a full evaluation and analysis of the literature. Lastly, for purposes of accuracy relevancy and reliability, the study only included academic papers (i.e. journal articles). Literature review relies on a critical assessment of the selected literature sources to ensure that the threshold established by selection criteria is maintained. Whereas evaluating the sources may not be an easy task, Derish (2011:389) argue that the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) is useful in critically appraising the quality of the collected evidence. Therefore, the present study applied the CASP to assess the quality of collected evidence by measuring the strength and weaknesses of each source of literature in relation to the research questions. In doing so, as will be illustrated in the PRISMA chart below, 364 literature materials were excluded from the text because their results could not help answer any research question. All in all, other elements checked by the CASP included: whether the results of each paper were valid and accurate.

PRISMA Tool Illustrating Article Search Process

Chapter 4

4.0 Results and Discussion

4.1 The History of Islam Culture and Education

The years of 750-1258 was the golden age of Muslims characterised by their push for development of knowledge through expeditions, exploration and scientific research (Razak, 2011). In an attempt to gain a mastery of technology and knowledge, the Muslims embraced the idea of learning all the positive aspects that could be learnt from civilization. Hence, according to Razak (2011), most of their knowledge was borrowed from the Greeks, the Persians and the Indians and this was in pursuit of enriching their own civilization. Alongside engaging into various scientific works, the Muslims were also keen to explore the philosophical thoughts of the Greek and how the Greeks understood human sciences. According to Chandra (2002), it is this motivation to learn Greek philosophy that led them into learning the ideas of early philosophers such as Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle of 427BC-347BC, 469BC-399BC, AND 384BC-322 BC respectively. Upon realizing that not all the Greek philosophical work was acceptable in the Muslim culture, early Muslim scholars resorted to the tactic of adopting, adapting, assimilating and integrating the Greek culture into their culture (Al-Roubaie, 2002). In doing so, according to Bock & Cameron (2002), they not only borrowed those ideas but also expanded them to come up with original, new and innovative ones. Through this tactic, the Muslims developed a culture and spirit of learning that emerged during their error of exploration and knowledge expansion. The spirit of knowledge development was so strong that during the Golden Age, even some western scholars borrowed some ideas from the Muslims. For example, the translated annotated work of from Muslim scholars was important sources of knowledge for the European on Greek philosophy (Burbules et al, 2000). Equally, the Europeans also learnt various ideas in astronomy, chemistry, medicine, algebra, mathematics and trigonometry. During that time, as Chandra (2002) observes there were only a few European scholars who could acknowledge the contributions that Muslim scholars had in the development of their knowledge in science. Imron (1998) write that most of the scientific development and knowledge advanced by Muslim scholars faced a massive diminishing when the Mongols, in the leadership of Hulagu Khan, invaded Bhagdad in 1258. According to Kellener (2000), the Mongol invasion was characterised by the butchering of a large number of Muslims and the burning of their libraries with large volumes of books. This era of Bhagdad invasion, together with European colonization in the 18th and 19th centuries saw most Muslim scholars resorting to a silent study of their own culture. Moreover, according to Mahathir (2003), these incidences contributed to them holding back their scientific explorations. The long-term persistence of this condition until the advent of industrial revolution in Britain put the West ahead in terms of scientific research while the Muslims lagged behind (Mohd, 2003). The Muslim scholars who had earlier had some knowledge in scientific research were either unable to cause much impact with their work or were overridden by the big moves Europeans were pulling in scientific research during the industrial revolution (Mohd, 2003). Today, the dominance of Western culture on Muslim countries is still evident in the high poverty levels characterising these countries and in how they are lagging behind in terms of various sectors of economic development. The technological and educational backwardness of some countries contributed by colonization are noticeable when compared to most affluent European countries. Even though most Muslim countries today have achieved democratic liberation and some are rich in natural resources such as oil and gas, they are still not even closer to achieving the same level of economic development possessed by developed countries in the world. Likewise, colonization has contributed to high dependence of most Muslim countries on the West especially in the areas of technology, science and education. Consequently, as argued by Razak (2011), the west has taken the advantage of indirectly maintaining a control on their former colonies in the East. The modern form of colonization is different and does not take a physical form but rather, it aims at controlling the hearts and minds of people in the developing countries. Also known as neo-colonization, the modern form of colonization is practiced through modern communication technologies which do not require a physical presence for the colonizers to advance their interests (Razak, 2011). According to Burbules et al (2000), it is a new form of control used by Western countries to subject the East to their supremacy through globalization. In fact, according to Al-Roubaie (2002) and Chandra (2002), most scholars refer to this term as re-colonization.

4.2 Impact of globalization on Islam Education

A major characteristic of education during the periods before the introduction of information and communication technology (ICT) were curriculums, books, and classrooms (Abidi, 2006). Bagheri (2004) believes that these factors posed a lot of limitations on the experience and meaning of education because the role of the students was to earn knowledge from a single source (i.e. books) while teachers’ role was to establish and affirm the authority of those sources. Nonetheless, according to Bagheri (2000), it is believed that globalization has impacted on education through different domains, one being learning and how students prepare to be global citizens while the other being the effects of ICT on the forms and timing of global education. This implies that the impact of globalization on Muslim education can be evaluated through different domains including learning domain and the forms of education. However, it is important to note that global ICT has enabled the delivery of more diverse education systems which gives learners the opportunity to choose their most preferred systems. According to Globalization Articles (2012), learners can now not only learn concepts but also participate in developing those concepts. They can now choose to pay attention only to the concepts that contribute to the improvement of their skills or talents without emphasizing on formal knowledge. Globalization, through its elements such as ICT, has contributed to a change in the aims of education in a far much level than educationists could ever imagine. For instance, in the past, education was mainly aimed at producing skills and knowledge for the well-being of humans. According to Brenda (2000), this was the case during the medieval times of the Western culture and after the time of Prophet Muhammad. Thereafter, as boundaries became more demarcated and countries became more differentiated, governments become more involved in education by building public schools (Behrangi, 2004). Enabled by the authorities such governments had on their citizens, they were able to inculcate a common ideology and transfer common knowledge to the citizens. These efforts led to the development of patriotism where the citizens had the same feelings towards their nations. This strategy was used by governments to promote societal cohesiveness and to create a unified nation with common goals among the citizens. Therefore, education was earlier used as a source of national unity among citizens of different states. The idea of public schools was meant to enable the transmission of culture, knowledge, religion, and values from generation to generation. However, in the modern day, the goals of education that was materialized by public schools have now transformed by the changing tides of globalization. The modern society’s perception of education and the reason why children are sent to school nowadays has been overridden by globalization and the modern lifestyle lived by people across the globe. For instance, Held & Mac-Grove (2003) argue that today’s globalized society sees education as a source of material gains and good life. Consequently, there has been a slow disappearance of the ideas and ideals that education sought to achieve in the earlier days. In this regard, Nitcavic (2008) argue that although it is not wrong to seek material gains through education, solely having a materialistic aim on education creates an environment where learners are less concerned about the well-being of the community because people become more egocentric. A continuity of such egocentric attitude towards education may have serious ramifications on the sense of belongingness to one nation in Muslim countries.

Globalization of education has been amplified by the proliferation of information and knowledge through the development of global ICT. According to Mahmoudi (2008), the internet, computers and other computer-enabled learning such as online databases, and digital libraries have enabled the transfer of knowledge to learners in every corner of the world, leading to a complete transformation of learning and teaching processes. For example, through technology, researchers are able to access learning materials and secondary sources of data originating from other researchers everywhere in the world without having to travel. They are able to read, analyse and review the journal articles for purposes of achieving their own research objectives through the internet. Through video tutorials, the internet and other learning gadgets, learners have been able to access useful information and knowledge from different sources worldwide without physically attending lectures. According to Sadjadi (2005), the development of such technology has challenged Muslim scholars and educationists to embrace the latest technology in rendering Islamic education to learners. This is evidenced by the availability of DVDs, VCDs and other digital materials with Muslim content meant to assist in Islamic education. Moreover, Islamic educationists are currently using the websites and blogs to propagate Islamic knowledge. However, Bagheri (2004) argues that whereas the modern innovative ways of learning have promoted the fast and efficient acquisition of knowledge, its major disadvantage is that learning has been more personalized and this eliminates the learner’s interaction with the community, making them more driven to materialistic gains. Moreover, Globalization Articles (2012) and Brenda (2000) opine that the personalization of learning to buy modern day technology and globalization has reduced the learner-teacher interaction which is generally an important aspect of learning. Ideally, the proponents of a physical interaction between the teacher and the learner hold that the face-to-face interaction is instrumental in making the raw information more meaningful to the learner through the teacher’s explanation. Apparently, this is true for the case of Islamic education especially in the process of learning serious aspects of Islam such as the Qur’an by those who are new to the religion or those who are at their basic levels of learning the religion and its doctrines. In the presence of globalization, Universities in Europe have opened campuses in developing countries around the world especially in Asian and African countries which were their colonies earlier on. According to Bagheri (2004), universities in the Western states have taken this opportunity to sell education through university and college campuses which earn them huge sums of profits yearly. Moreover, these universities offer distant learning to students in collaboration with the universities and colleges in the Muslim countries, leading to a tremendous rise in the cost of higher education. This high cost of tertiary education is unaffordable to students in the third world countries yet it is only through the courses offered by these universities that are required in the job market. Globalization has also contributed to the dominance of the English language in the Islamic system of education. When foreign universities open campuses in these countries, they use the internet and learning software material which makes it difficult to learn without having a good mastery of the English language. For instance, the Malaysian government introduced the English language as a medium of teaching sciences and mathematics in order to deal with the challenges of globalization. According to Globalization Articles (2012), this decision by the Malaysian Ministry of Education implied that all Malaysian teachers teaching English and Mathematics to learn the English language and have skills in computer software. As a result, the Malaysian Ministry of Education spent huge amount of financial resources in training the teachers and providing other resources (e.g. LCD projectors, the internet and computers) used in classroom, a move considered by the then Malaysian government as an improvement from the chalk and blackboard technology – the oldest technology in the field of education (Abidi, 2006). Unfortunately, in 2012, according to Globalization Articles (2012), the Malaysian government had to revert to the old technique of teaching due to a constant pressure from the Malay political activists and linguists. The use of English in most Muslim developed and developing countries has created business for publishing companies in both the US and UK. According to Bagheri (2004), these companies provide relevant software, books and other materials used in those countries to disseminate knowledge and therefore, considering who are the gainers of the globalization of the English language, it becomes clear that it is the West. While globalization has promoted the English as a dominant language, it has also led the marginalization of other locally used languages in Asia and Africa. As argued by Sadjadi (2005), the conscious or unconscious learning of English as contributed to an increase in the adoption of Western culture and way of life in most countries in the East and around the world. In fact, the invasion of western culture in the East is openly evident in the way the youth from previous European colonies dress and talk. Similarly, according to Held & Mac-Grove (2003), today’s Muslim youth wear T-shirts bearing obscure labels and symbols and wear trousers in positions that intentionally expose their body parts. This sparks reactions from Muslim scholars who are of the opinion that such manner of dressing is un-Islamic and immoral. These behaviours contribute to the deterioration and disappearance of local culture and the as the western culture takes over. Hence, as globalization enhances, people in the developing and underdeveloped countries slowly adopt the Western culture into their value systems causing the Islamic value system to diminish. Most Islamic countries such as Malaysia and Saudi Arabia have adopted Islamic education as their core system of education. In fact, according to Chawki (2010), some of these countries including Malaysia have established policies and regulations that form a basis for moral and Islamic teachings to emphasize on morally, emotionally, spiritually, physically and intellectually balanced individuals who are submissive to God. Hence, according to Chong et al (2005), such countries consider Islamic Education as a key element in the achievement of these objectives. Moreover, the philosophical teachings of Islamic education emphasize on personality, skills and attitude which is consistent with the knowledge of and appreciates Al-Sunnah and Al-Qur’an. In order to produce such balanced individuals, according to Farid et al (2012), some countries (e.g. Malaysia) with Muslim education systems rely on Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan (FPK) or Falsafah Pendidikan Islam (FPI) philosophies which embody aspects such as the implementation of effective education on individuals in order to develop in them the global view of a Khalifat Allah. It is believed that such an application of education plays a major role in delivering a young generation of individuals who are trustworthy, appreciative of the Muslim culture and are able to avoid bad character. Hence, against this background, it is evident that there is a clear purpose with which the Muslim education is designed, which is to form a well-balanced personality with Islamic religious skills capable of practicing Islam. On the same note, Hamida (2005), while evaluating the influence of modernity and Islamic education on personal character development emphasizes that in order to promote the universality of Islam, Islamic societies adopt Islamic education which is grounded on sound religious knowledge. Considering the focused nature of Islamic education and the effects that globalization has on it, the existing literature reveals interesting insights. Among them are the effects of globalization on the Islamic curriculum, teaching methods, and the digitization of Islamic education.

4.2.1 Effects of globalization on Islamic Curriculum

In an attempt to adapt to the changing technology and the tides of globalization, Islamic countries have made several attempts to change their education curriculum. This change of curriculum is viewed as not only an effort to adapt to the current developmental needs but also to raise the standards of education to a global level (Mohd & Rohani, 2009). For instance, in Malaysia, there have been massive transformation of the primary education system since the year 2003 characterised by the adoption of Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah (KBSRK) in 2003 and the implementation of an integrated secondary school curriculum (Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah) whose main aim was to create a consistency between the country’s education system and the new ICT and globalization era (Mohd et al, 2011). According to Curriculum Development Division (2011), the adoption of the new secondary and primary school curriculum in Malaysia was characterized by a change in the content, form, school time schedules, assessment criteria, material and organization of knowledge delivery. Hence, it is apparent that globalization has led changes in the curriculum of Islamic education in some Islamic countries and this has been characterized by numerous changes in how knowledge is delivered in primary and secondary schools in those countries. The Malaysian example also highlights how globalization has led to a transformation of the standards of education in Muslim countries. The curriculum changes that occurred in the Malaysian secondary and primary education systems saw a change in the standards of education in two major dimensions. First, according to Orozco & Hilliard (2004), there was the advancement in the content standards which involved a change in the skills, values, and knowledge. Secondly, the learning standards of both levels of education, which are indicators of the quality of education and achievement level of students, were upgraded to ensure that students were exposed to relevant education that resonates with the current requirement of producing global citizens with the ability to handle global challenges. Nonetheless, it is important to note that curriculum development is a dynamic affair, and since 2003, the Malaysian curriculum has undergone several changes, still with aim of conforming to global changing standards of education. Several studies (e.g. Halim et al 2010) have revealed that Islamic education is characterized by poor methods of knowledge delivery and teaching. Specifically, the lecture method of teaching is considered the most preferred method by teachers in Islamic education due to the ease with which it is delivered, its low cost, and the fact that most of the teachers had an experience in it during their days in school. However, through globalization, Islamic schools have adopted technology-based teaching methods which have improved the students’ level of understanding (Samuel & Zaintun, 2006). Zaharah Hussin (2005) suggests that ICT has not only made it easier for teachers to teach but also attracted the interest of students in the learning process. Worryingly though, the high-cost ICT has made it difficult for some third world Islamic countries to include it in their education system.

4.2.2 Globalization and the Digitization of Islamic Education

Global technological development has had a massive impact on the Islamic education system. It has led to the emergence of ‘i-Muslim’ society (Bunt, 2009) which is a contemporary approach to learning in Islamic education. According to Orozco & Hilliard (2004), this approach enables the connectivity and sharing of information and knowledge among Muslims through networking on computer platforms. It is seen as the latest innovative approach to delivering and acquiring Islamic education through a conventionally combined technology and Islam. According to Zulkiple (2010) and Bunt (2009), this approach has enabled Muslims from everywhere around the world to have a borderless and unrestricted communication between each other, leading to the creation of the ‘Cyber Islam’. Since time immemorial, Muslims have used various strategies such as welfare, the oral method, and marriage to disseminate Islamic teachings (Harun, 2007). However, the development of technology saw Muslims change their knowledge dissemination and preaching techniques by adopting the internet as the mainstream platform for passing information on Islam religion. For example, as Chwaki (2010) observes, attention to Islamic information on the Internet begun to spread after the September 11 events when most people, Muslim or not, searched for information about Muslims on the internet. In fact, the term Islamophobia emerged as an extension of September 11 incident as a form of prejudice against Islamic teaching which was viewed by many as a source of advocacy for violence, cruelty, and warfare (Mohd & Rohani, 2009). Since the 9/11 incident, many users of the internet, especially the Muslims have made use of websites to advance Islamic teachings through online lectures, podcasts, and religious classes. Particularly, According to Globalization Articles (2012), these containers have been aimed at making clarifications on the truth about Muslim beliefs and teachings. The proliferation of Islamic education on the internet is enabled by various Muslim-based websites such as Axela, Wikipedia, and MediaFire among others. These websites spread information and Islamic teaching is informally run by Islamic individuals, NGOs, and private institutions. According to Orozco & Hilliard (2004), they offer free services and are frequently visited by both Muslims and non-Muslims who have an opportunity to upload and download items with Islamic content on and from them respectively. Other websites used in Muslim countries as sources of Islamic education include mymaktabaty.com, www.iluvislam.com, and halaqah.net among others (Mohd et al, 2011). Whereas most of these websites are owned by private entities and individuals, some Islamic governments such as that of Malaysia have used some of them to interact with the public, making them a point of reference for people around the world (Hamida, 2005). However, according to Sadjadi (2005), these websites face various challenges including those related to user-friendliness, poor clarity on some issues an ease of accessibility.

4.3 Impact of globalization on Muslim Culture

Supporters of globalization claim that it has contributed to a greater development of third world countries by eliminating their backwardness and enlightening them with fresh and useful ideas (Ameli, 2002). According to Dodge & Higgott (2002), they claim that globalization has various positive impacts such as the development of foreign direct investment that create employment opportunities and reduced poverty, the dissemination of knowledge through information technology, easier and cheaper communication and other benefits. However, there are two categories of Muslim scholars who have different perceptions about globalization. The first group, according to Bianchi (2013), claim that globalization is good because of the positive contributions it makes to the development of the Muslim society in regards to trade and employment opportunities. The second group opines that globalization is bad because it contributes to the spread of the Western culture which drains Islamic culture from the Muslim society and that it is actually a form of colonization. Moreover, as Mohamed (2015) puts it, the West still has the ideology of subjugating other countries, especially those in Africa and the East for purposes of gaining power in the global politics. Through this subjugation, they gain natural resources and wealth at the expenses of the poor countries. Against this background, globalization is seen by a section of Islamic scholars as a new form of the old colonization (neo-colonialism), except that it is done through sophisticated means (e.g. the internet and TV) which are different from the ones in the old colonization. A deeper analysis of literature by Roy (2004) and Al-Rodhan (2012) reveal that globalization has led to the advancement of the western culture in the East and the other parts of the world. In fact, Lewis (1994) says that some of these values are atheistic and do not recognize the existence of a supreme God. Through globalization, secular cultural practices in the west are adopted in the minds and homes of Muslims, leading to a disruption of the Eastern culture and way of life and a deterioration of their core-values that were earlier on given high regard (Bennabi, 2003). Secularization, the process of adopting the Western secular culture, tends to divide things into two: those that belong to God and those that belong to the state (Ahmed, 2007). Dodge & Higgott (2002) argue that these two groups of things cannot mix, and believers in this dichotomy of things assume that God should only be thought of when people are in church, and once people are out of church and worship, they can do anything that suits their desires. Yet, this kind of life philosophy is opposed by the Muslim culture and is contradictory to their religious beliefs. Another aspect of globalization that is contradictory between the East and the West is the idea of value-free education. According to Dodge & Higgott (2002), the West holds that education and knowledge should be free of any religious aspect while in the East; education is considered a conduit through which religious doctrines are passed to young ones. In Islam, knowledge is passed on to learners in a manner that teaches humility in the face of Allah. Moreover, as opposed to the Western culture of being non-judgmental when they see, acquire, or experience things, the Muslim culture tend to judge anything that goes against their norm because most Muslims have a clear understanding of what is wrong and what is right in the face of their culture. Based on these contrasting cultural features, religious leaders, teachers, and parents in most Muslim countries the free flow of information through globalization may have serious ramifications on the sociocultural structure of the Muslim society (Ameli, 2002). They also fear that globalization enabled by the Internet and other forms of ICT may contribute to the spread of the Western lifestyle because most of the ideologies that come along through the internet are contradictory to the Islamic culture and ideologies. According to Bianchi (2013), a major area that is feared by the Muslim parents and religious leaders is sexual perversion which includes lesbianism, homosexuality and other forms of sex that are considered extremely inadmissible in the Muslim culture. The globalized ICT, through the liberalization and privatization of global and local media respectively have contributed to freedom of the press, and this contributes to a media that is not sensitive to any culture or religion (Al-Rodhan, 2012). The globalized media has taken this advantage to spread negative information and misconceptions about Islam with news characterized by several malicious words such as fundamentalism, fanaticism, violent behavior, and terrorism (Bianchi, 2013). Moreover, according to Roy (2004), sometimes the media manipulate events and news that happen in Muslim countries. Equally, the takeover and control of Judeo-Christian Circle on global media have led to the spread of hatred and cultural invasion against Muslims leading to disunity in the Muslim world and a destruction of the Muslim religious image (Hazizan, 1997). The biased media coverage of the Muslim world has had several effects on Islam culture and way of thinking. According to Mohamed (2015), it has led to a contradiction of Muslim teachings and exportation of the Western culture into the East with an aim of liberalizing the Muslim lifestyle and values. For example, when various Western products are advertised through the global media, the minds of Muslim teenagers get manipulated to think that Islamic values and teachings are irrelevant (Al-Rodhan, 2012).

4.3.1 Global Media

Globalization has been viewed as a major factor contributing to the demoralization the Muslim society and a source of negative conducts that do not adhere to the Islam culture. For instance, the global media, through advanced ICT, has led to the dissemination of negative images and values which infiltrate into the Muslim society. For example, according to Bianchi (2013), the global media has been a conduit through which the incapability and incompetence of the Muslim society are spread. Similarly, international news agencies such as BBC and CNN covering daily news are accused of using the international news to blame Muslims of violence and terrorism (Ahmed, 2007). Through the internet, the Western world has been able to undermine the cultural security and penetrate the identity of Muslims. For instance, the Muslim society has become over-dependent on foreign communication programs, expertise and equipment, and the massive technological advancement in communication technology has given an upper hand to the West, enabling them to perpetuate and manipulate the Muslim society through propaganda that the Western culture is the ‘best and most accepted’. As a result, the Muslim world continues to import the telecommunication equipment and technology from the west without establishing whether they adhere to Islamic teachings (Ameli, 2002). The role of global media in disseminating non-Muslim ideologies is seen as the way through which globalization has influenced Muslim culture. According to Nitcavic (2008), these impacts are manifested through various elements such as socialism, modernism, rationalism, materialism, communism, post-modernism, secularism and spiritualism in the Muslim society. These elements have led to the engulfing of eastern culture by the western culture and way of life. Culturally and intellectually, globalization has made the east to be subjected to the west characterized by the continually decreasing attention of Islamic ideology and the tactful inculcation of the western ideology into the East (Abidi, 2006). For example, as will be illustrated, later on, westernization, secularization, and modernization has led to the confusion around the meaning of the word Jihad because the west views it as terrorism or extremism without understanding how the word was rooted.

4.3.2 Secularization

The word secularization can be used to mean denying supernatural and metaphysical ideas and distancing oneself from religious beliefs espoused in cultural integration (Naquibal-Attas, 1985). It also entails the process through which the individuals or the society rationalizes their condition and it has attracted the attention of Muslim scholars due to its potentiality to affect the Islamic culture. For instance, Nitcavic (2008) writes that the secular political system of the west holds the idea that through an electoral democratic process, the majority have the sovereignty. Yet, in the Islamic context, sovereignty only belongs to God (Allah) it is only through his laws that the society is guided to achieve prosperity.

4.3.3 Postmodernism

Like secularization, postmodernism has had a great impact on Muslim culture especially due to its effects on Islamic lifestyle, architecture, and art practices. Nonetheless, the modernity and colonialism ideologies form the basis for the absorption and consumption of secularization, consumerism, postmodernism, and liberalism as quoted by (Sardar, 1999: 114) that: "..Nothing has an intrinsic nature which may be expressed or represented and everything is a product of time and chance". And that: "Truth is relative... Postmodernism rejects all forms of truth claims. It accepts nothing as absolute…" Therefore, a major characteristic of postmodernism that emerges from these pieces of literature is that within the confines of postmodernism, nothing is absolute, there is no experience, there is no theory, and everything is uncertain. It also entails the constant agitation for equal representation and freedom of, sexual orientation culture, ethnicity and race and gender (Hamida, 2005). In its constant agitation for consolidation of all culture into one creates an opportunity for multiculturism to thrive. According to According to Globalization Articles (2012), this is because multiculturism thrives in equal opportunity and power-sharing while the power itself exists in a form of postmodernism.

4.3.4 Sexual Desires

While the society in the west allows individuals to fulfil their own sexual desires including engaging in such kinds of sexual relationship, the Islamic society forbids such kinds of relationships and considers them an abuse to family and the institution of marriage which are two aspects of the culture that are ordained by God (Al-Rodhan, 2012). Moreover, according to Mohamed (2015), some Muslim parents view the internet as a source of moral decadence among children because if left alone, they might engage in the watching of pornographic movies and other immoral information that goes against the Islam culture.

4.3.5 Homogenous Culture

Those who oppose globalization also claim that it plays a negative role in abolishing the cultural differences that exist among different societies worldwide. In doing so, according to Ahmed (2007), it enhances homogeneity in the global society and eliminates the heterogeneous nature of the world as created by God. As a result, the world is currently undergoing a process of homogenization that is increasing day by day. Indeed, as Mohamed (2015) argues, this homogenization of cultures has an impact on secluded or reserved cultures such as the Islamic culture.

4.3.6 Global Village

Malcom (2002) argues that the social process of globalization leads to an elimination of various geographical constraints on cultural and social arrangements with the people being aware that these constraints are being eliminated. As this happens, peoples’ lives are influenced by the dissemination of technologies, values, and practices all over the world for the benefit of mankind (Albrow, 1996). This implies that globalization leads to the transformation of economy, cultures, and politics; and entails various forms of changes which can be understood through four dimensions such as global culture, world systems, global capitalism and the global society (Mahmoudi, 2008). On the same note, scholars claim that globalization also destroys various pre-existing cultures and reshapes them by introducing new orders of social structures and intensifying global social relations. In doing so, according to Nitcavic (2008), it acts as a link to distant localities in a manner that the happenings of a particular locality or part of the world influences or shapes the happenings in another locality. Against this understanding, globalization, as described above, contributes to a borderless world – also termed as the global village. However, Locher (1998) argues that these changes occur in a one-way traffic because they originate from the ideas and goods from western countries while the developing countries only act as consumers or recipients. According to According to Globalization Articles (2012), these changes have have a remarkable impact on Islam Ummah by disuniting their cultural and social aspects.

4.3.7 Intellectual Westernization

As the Western culture, values, and ideas continue to infiltrate into the social and religious values of Muslims in the East through the internet and other forms of media, the Muslim culture gets affected by the products, ideas, and activities in the form of literature, economics, and philosophy (Abidi, 2006). A typical example is a way Muslim intellectuals have been westernized. To explain further, according to Brenda (2000), the Muslim intellectuals who have studied in western countries have adopted the socio-cultural values, a way of life and perceptions. In the opinions of Behrangi (2004), this happens because most of the Muslim students who go abroad do so while still spiritually and intellectually naïve and therefore as they continue with their studies, they find themselves religiously, culturally and socially dislocated. Moreover, being that they have little knowledge of the teachings of Islam, westernized Islam intellectuals fail to develop deeper knowledge of Islam culture, values and belief system (Mahmoudi, 2008) Certainly, their expertise is developed in western culture, society and thought and this has led to the emergence of various forms of confrontations between Muslims traditionalists and Muslim intellectuals about how Islamic religious practices and cultural values should be adhered to. For instance, according to According to Globalization Articles (2012), some Islamic intellectuals consider the separation of state from religion yet this perception is not accepted by Muslim traditionalists. These are considered wrong and misleading ideas which are borrowed from the western social and political ideology into the Islamic discourse. Interestingly, such contradictions of perceptions are even evident in some Islamic constitutions. For instance, the constitutions of most Islamic countries consider Islam as a state religion, yet the law of Sharia have largely been ignored in state operations as exemplified in the case of Pakistan and Bangladesh (Hamida, 2005).

4.3.8 Christian Missionaries

Globalization has also impacted on Islamic culture through the works of Christian-based non-governmental organizations (NGOs). According to Nuruzzaman (2003), these institutions knowingly or unknowingly use various luring methods and tactics through medical aid, economic development, and educational development agendas to convert Muslims, Hindus, and other religions into Christianity. In fact, Nitcavic (2008) contends that in the periods of 1990s, there were many missionary organizations and bodies working under the Roman Catholic Church, Protestant Church and other church agencies to convert people to Christianity. These missionaries majorly aimed to have as many Muslims and Hindus to convert to Christianity while their main targets were children women, the lowly educated and the poor (Behrangi, 2004). They also aimed at influencing a section of the Muslim leadership by actively involving themselves in the national, social and religious development of some Muslim countries such as Indonesia and Bangladesh. For instance, that the missionaries in Bangladesh had some significant success in converting the religious and socio-cultural lives of people in that country. According to Khan (1981), at least four catholic-based (Saint Francis Xavier, Pontifical Institute of Foreign Mission, Congregation of Holy Cross-Canada, and Congregation of Holy Cross-USA) missions had a direct or indirect involvement in the conversion of the people’s culture under the pretext of development, co-operation and progress. To give a more panoramic view of these missionaries, Khan (1981) indicate that the Protestant and Catholic missions in Bangladesh worked with more than 200 other agencies which led to an estimated 400,000 Bangladeshi people converted into Christianity in 1991 (Coureier, 1994). These missionaries had set a target of having at least 10 million Bangladeshi converts within a span of 20 years using various methods including seduction, corruption, and conversion (Coureier, 1994). In doing so, they used ideas and policies were educationally and economically oriented and this formed an attraction and an influence to some Islamic leaders who were important in decision-making in the sectors of social policy, politics, power, military, and bureaucracy (Islam, 2001). This was part of a long-term strategy aimed at threatening and posing a challenge to Islam by breaking the Islamic society and family bonds while corrupting their minds. The use of medical aid was particularly very effective in influencing and converting people. For instance, In Bangladeshi, the Christian missionaries established dispensaries, hospitals, and clinics (Khan, 1981). Equally, they build orphanages with training facilities besides providing basic needs such as food, shelter, and clothing for the orphans.

4.3.9 Economic and Social Aid

Some global-based NGOs have had a great impact on Muslim culture and society through various activities that give them an opportunity to interact with Muslim societies. According to According to Globalization Articles (2012), they influence governments, individuals and organizations in poor Muslim countries through human resources and financial assistance. When these NGOs are funded and controlled by secular-minded individuals with no sensitivity to the Muslim culture, they may influence the leadership of those countries to accept or embrace the anti-Muslim culture. This has been witnessed in the past in the case of Bangladeshi Rural Development Committee (BRAC), a prominent NGO in Bangladesh which had a significant effect on Bangladeshi culture and society. According to (20), the NGO established more than 5000 schools enrolling at least 500,000 students in Bangladesh. Interestingly, according to Mohiuddin (1997), the schools had more attendance rates (85%) than Bangladeshi government schools (15%). Moreover, whereas most of the BRAC loan recipients were women, a 1991 survey by Nuruzzaman (1996) reveals that most of the women were used as instruments for propagating hatred and prejudice against Islamic establishments, culture, and tradition, a phenomenon which led to the breakage of family ties. Hence, whereas many of these NGOs have had positive impacts on Muslim societies through education and financial aid, they have played a major role in secularization and demoralization of some Muslim societies in the past. Khan (1981) contends that ultimately, these activities resulted in an economically and educationally influential community of Muslim converts controlling the sectors of education, economy, military, and social policy.

4.3.10 Dichotomous Systems of Education

The Muslim system of education has been on a dichotomous mode for a long time and this has had long-term effects on Muslim values and culture by producing dual citizens in the Muslim world. During the post-colonial period, colonial masters, in an attempt to perpetuate their rules, attempted to introduce two types of education systems. The first type was aimed at producing clerics while the second one aimed at producing clerks. For instance, the British introduced an educational system in some Muslim countries which majorly produced administrative staff and clerks without of the Islamic rituals and rites while on the other hand, the religious stream of Islamic education produced Islamic scholars who had no knowledge in science and technology (Ali, 1990). The religious stream is aimed at equipping people with knowledge of handling various religious activities such as weddings, solemn births, rituals, and funerals while the modern stream of education aims at equipping people with skills for getting better-paying jobs for raising their families. Consequently, among the Muslim society, individuals considered to have undergone the modern stream of education are considered as agonists, atheists and followers of the western values and culture, while those educated in the religious stream of education system are considered as fundamentalists, detached, reactionary and inconsiderate of technology and modern global development (Ali, 1990). Unsurprisingly, these two categories of people disregarded each other and as they continued to exist in the society, the disregard developed into family disunity and destruction of the social fabric both in the society. The dichotomous education system still exists in Muslim countries today, more than 10 decades after the post-colonial period. According to Khan (1994), this dichotomous type of education has continued to create a divided society of Islamic intellectuals and citizenship with an inherent opposition between them. This has several ramifications and effects on the Muslim society.

4.3.11 Socio-economic Dependency

Globalization has also led to several socio-economic impacts on the Muslim societies that are worth noting. As a region full of developing countries, the East has suffered several unbalanced effects especially in the economic globalization’s process of increasing economic growth of developed countries through the control of major resources in the developing countries (Abidi, 2006). Indeed, economic globalization has bestowed the control of most world resources on the hands of a few people, creating an opportunity for social injustice, disunity, and unfairness among the global society. For instance, economic globalization has led to a split in the global society between the rich and the poor, and this split does not spare the Muslim society (Mahmoudi, 2008). The disparity between the poor and the rich in the Muslim society and well as the general world population would create hatred. Another effect of economic globalization that has had serious effects on the Muslim society and the world over is the high level of dependency on the West. According to According to Globalization Articles (2012), Muslims’ overdependence on grants and loans from the west and other western NGOs to support economic development leads to a gradual disappearance of innovativeness and self-dependence in the East. Although some countries in the East such as the United Arab Emirates have made significant achievements in technological and infrastructural development, other countries such as Pakistan and Afghanistan are still lagging behind especially due to the constant warring activities that are experienced in such countries. Undoubtedly, this overdependence contributes to the imposition of western demands and rules on the East.

Chapter 5

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1 Conclusion

A major objective of this study was to evaluate how globalization impacts on Islamic culture and education. In regards to education, existing literature reviewed by this study reveals that globalization has impacted on education through different domains, one being learning and how students prepare to be global citizens while the other being the effects of ICT on the forms and timing of global education, and therefore the impact of education can be analysed from both the perspectives of forms of education and learning. Nonetheless, globalization has enabled learners in the Muslim societies to choose their most preferred systems of education and to choose to pay attention only to the concepts that contribute to the improvement of their skills or talents without emphasizing on formal knowledge. This finding reflects on the theory of liberalism which partly holds that the connectivity that characterizes globalization emanated from the human quest to satisfy their need for basic freedom and material needs. This study has also found that globalization has contributed to change in the aim of education. For instance, in the past, education was mainly aimed at producing skills and knowledge for the well-being of humans. However, in the modern day, the goals of education that was materialized by public schools have now transformed by the changing tides of globalization. The modern society’s perception of education and the reason why children are sent to school nowadays has been overridden by globalization and the modern lifestyle lived by people across the globe. This has led to the emergence of a materialistically aimed at education. Yet, solely having a materialistic aim on education creates an environment where learners are less concerned about the well-being of the community because people become more egocentric. Moreover, a continuity of such egocentric attitude towards education may have serious ramifications on the sense of belongingness to one nation, especially the Muslim nations. This study has found that globalization, through ICT, has enabled an easy delivery of Islamic education without the learners having travel to any part of the world to acquire such education. The development of technology has challenged Muslim scholars and educationists to embrace the latest technology in rendering Islamic education to learners. This is evidenced by the availability of DVDs, CDs, websites, and blogs to propagate Islamic knowledge. This finding also relates to the theory of liberalism because the theory assumes that globalization advances through technological development in areas such as information transfer and education. The study has also established that globalization contributes to the dominance of the English language in the Islamic system of education, a phenomenon that ultimately benefits the West and other English speaking countries because the companies in these countries provide relevant software, books and other materials used in those countries to disseminate knowledge. The domination of the English language in the Islamic education system has also led to the marginalization of local languages in the Islamic societies. The study has also established that globalization has led to a change in the education curriculums of Islamic countries such as Malaysia. This change of curriculum is viewed as not only an effort to adapt to the current developmental needs but also to raise the standards of education to a global level. For instance, the adoption of the new secondary and primary school curriculum in Malaysia was characterized by a change in the content, form, school time schedules, assessment criteria, material and organization of knowledge delivery. Moreover, this study concludes that globalization has contributed to a change in education standards in Muslim countries such as Malaysia as exemplified by the upgrade of learning standards of Malaysian secondary and primary education to ensure that students were exposed to relevant education that resonates with the current requirement of producing global citizens with the ability of handling global challenges. However, this study has also established that attempts to adopt global standards of education have led to serious negative ramifications on the Muslim culture in those countries. A major impact of globalization on Islamic education is the digitization of Islamic education. For instance, the study has established that globalization has led to the emergence of ‘i-Muslim’ society (Bunt, 2009) which is a contemporary approach to learning in Islamic education. This approach has enabled the connectivity and sharing of information and knowledge among Muslims through networking on computer platforms. In regards to culture, the literature review has identified that whereas a group of Muslim scholars appreciated the role of globalization in transforming the Muslim society through development and employment opportunities, another group claim that it contributes to the spread of the Western culture which drains Islamic culture from the Muslim society and that it is actually a form of colonization. Moreover, existing literature reveals that according to some Muslim scholars, the West still has the ideology of subjugating other countries, especially those in Africa and the East for purposes of gaining power in the global politics. Through this subjugation, they gain natural resources and wealth at the expense of the poor countries. Thus, globalization in the eyes of some Muslim scholars is a form of modern colonization (neo-colonialism). This finding reflects on the theory of political realism which holds that nations and states are self-serving and are always in competition for power and domination over other states. Existing literature also reveals that through globalization, secular cultural practices in the west are adopted in the minds and homes of Muslims, leading to a disruption of the Eastern culture and way of life and a deterioration of their core-values that were earlier on given high regard. The second objective of this study was to explore how the western culture has infiltrated and spread into the western culture. In this regard, the study has established that through global globalized media and ICT the liberalization and privatization of global and local media respectively have contributed to freedom of the press, and this contributes to a media that is not sensitive to any culture or religion. The final objective of the study was to explore how globalization has contributed to the spread of neo-colonialism in the eastern culture. In this regard, the study has established that as opposed to the earlier form of colonization, a modern form of colonization is practiced through modern communication technologies which do not require a physical presence for the colonizers to advance their interests. This is a way of the western powers to continue to maintain their former colonies in the East. This study is of the opinion that the definitions of globalization in regards to liberalization, internationalization, modernization, and westernization indicate to globalization as a form of neo-colonialism. If the globalization, as illustrated in some instances herein, contributes to the oppression and suppression of other societies to make a nation more superior than the other, then there is a common characteristic between neo-colonization and globalization. Moreover, this study has depicted globalization as an idea that emanates from the west with an intention of making the Western countries rich and high above other countries, thereby depicting itself as a form of neo-colonization.

5.2 Recommendations

This study has established that globalization has several impacts on the Muslim culture and education and therefore in the spirit of academics, it needs to propose measures or remedies that Muslim societies can take to prevent the negative effects of globalization and make use of its positive impacts. Therefore, the following are considered the best ways in which Muslims can deal with globalization to safeguard their culture: • Regardless of the tides of globalization, Muslims should not ignore the global technological advances in various sectors including e-commerce, e-learning, and multimedia among others. This is because staying away from these advancements will make them lag behind and in the end; they will be the ultimate losers in the era of globalization. It would be wise for the Muslims to master new technology and use it as an instrument of progress, economic development and other benefits to their societies. • Muslims should also make more efforts to cut down their dependence on Western technology, software, and multimedia because such a level of dependency leads to neo-colonization. A continued dependence on the western expertise technology amounts to a continued subjugation and control by the western powers, yet the Islamic doctrines discourage Muslims from living under the rule of others, especially those who preach against their culture and religion. • This study recommends that Muslim countries rich in resources such as oil and gas should consider redirecting their investments away from western countries towards other Muslim countries to promote self-development and reduce overdependence. This will lead to a reduction in the disparity between the rich and poor Muslim countries. After all, such an action would conform to the requirement by Qur’an that Muslims should help one another. • In regards to the internet and its negative effects, Muslims should ensure that it is used smartly only to gain positive information and knowledge. Moreover, Muslims should invest in learning how to use the internet to promulgate Islam and to reach out to Muslims leaving in other parts of the world during their efforts to spread Islamic doctrines. • Muslims also need to invest in research and development because as seen in the era of Muslim Golden Age, Islamic engagement in research and development contributed to a successful Muslim society and attracted European scholars to seek scientific knowledge from them. However, the Muslims later became complacent and lost all the glory to European scholars and researchers. Hence, a massive engagement of Muslims into research will help eliminate their dependence on western intellect. • Whereas Muslims have made some achievement in the media and broadcasting sector as exemplified by Al-Jazeera, there still needs to be more efforts to ensure that Muslims do not depend on media owned by the East for news about what is happening in the other parts of the world, and to eliminate the bias reporting that has been experienced from other international media.

References

Abdul Karim Khan, Christian missions in Bangladesh, The Islamic Foundation, London, 1981, pp. 13- 14.

Al-Roubaie A. (2002), Globalization and the Muslim World, Selangor,Shah Alam: Malita

Al-Rodhan, N. (2012). The Role Of The Arab-Islamic World In The Rise Of The West: Implications For Contemporary Trans-Cultural Relations. Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan.

Bagheri K. (2004). Globalization, the information revolutionand education with an emphasis on the perspective of R. F. Lyotard. Educational innovations, 8, 40-58.

Bagheri K. (2004) Globalization, the information revolution and education with an emphasis on the perspective of R. F. Lyotard. Educational innovations, 8, 40-58.

Brenda W. (2000) The effective teaching of religious education. ( B. Mohsenpour, Trans.). Proceedings of Islamic education, 3, Qom. Islamic Education Center.

Behrangi M. (2004) First national conference abstracts of globalization and education. College of agriculture, University of Tehran.

Chawki M. (2010) Islam in the digital age: Counselling and fatwas at the click of a mouse. Journal of International Commercial Law and Technology, 5(4): 165-180.

Dodge T., & Higgott, R. (2002) Globalization and the Middle East: Islam, economy, society and politics. Washington, DC, Brookings Inst.

Farid Z., Wan M., and Ibrahim B. (2012). The Islamic education and the j-QAF program in Malaysia. Advances in Natural and Applied Sciences, 6(3): 310-315.

Gasparyan Y., Ayvazyan L., Blackmore H., Kitas D. (2011) Writing a narrative biomedical review: considerations for authors, peer reviewers, and editors. Rheumatol Int , 31:1409–1417.

Hazizan N. (1997), Islam, Sociology and Development: Conflict or Co-existence, Paper presented at the conference on lslamization of Sociology and Anthropology: Implications for Social Development of Muslim Countries.

Halim T., and Nik Y, (2010) Isu pengajaran dan pembelajaran pendidikan Islam. In: Ab. Halim Tamuri and Nik Mohd Rahimi Nik Yusoff (eds.). Kaedah Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Pendidikan Islam. Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Press, pp: 19-37.

Hamidah S., (2005). Pendidikan Islam dan pengaruh persekitaran dan kemajuan: Kesan kepada pembentukan sahsiah. Jurnal Masalah Pendidikan, 28: 71-78.

Knowledge: Implications for Muslim Education. Selangor: International Islamic University Malaysia.

Ioannidis, J. P., Greenland, S., Hlatky, M. A., Khoury, M. J., Macleod, M. R., Moher, D., &Tibshirani, R. (2014). Increasing value and reducing waste in research design, conduct, and analysis. The Lancet, 383(9912), 166-175.

Kellner D. (2000) Globalization and New Social Movements: Lessons for Critical Theory and Pedagogy in Globalizaion and Education(ed). Nicholas C. Burbules & Carlos Alberto Torres, New York: USA: Routledge.

Khan F. (1994). The Quranic Principles of Education, Islamic Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Mahathir M. (2003) Globalisation and the New Realities. Subang Jaya,Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications (M) Sdn. Bhd.

Mohd K. (2003) Setting the Muslim Mindset in Malaysia: Facing the Challenge of Globalization ,Keynote address delivered at the International Conference on Teaching and Teacher Education, Kuala Lumpur, 16th September,2003.

Mohd A. (1997) Human nature: A Comparative Study Between Western and Islamic Psychology. Selangor: International Islamic University Malaysia.

Mohd A. (2011) Contribution of Iqbal’s Dynamic Personality Theory to Islamic psychology: A Contrastive Analysis with Freud and Selected Mainstream Western Psychology. Selangor: International Islamic University Malaysia.

Mahmoudi R. (2008) The effects of globalization on the security of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Tehran. Amir Kabir Publishing Institute.

Mohd A., Che N., and Rohani T., (2009) Persepsi pelajar terhadap amalan pengajaran tilawah al-Quran. Jurnal Pendidikan Malaysia, 34(1): 93-109.

Mohd N., Surina S., and Mohd H. (2011). M-Pembelajaran: Paradigma baru dalam pembelajaran tamadun Islam. 2nd International Conference of ASEAN Studies in Islamic, World Civilization and Arabic Education. Chana Songkhla, Thailand, 7-11.

Ragin, C. C. (2014). The comparative method: Moving beyond qualitative and quantitative strategies. Univ of California Press.

Samuel R. and Zaintun B. (2006). Do teachers have adequate ICT resources in promoting English language teaching and learning? Journal of ICT, 5: 29-44.

Sadjadi S. (2005) Cultural pluralism, identity and education. Modern Educational Thought. Faculty of Education and Psychology. Educational Science and Psychology. (Vol. 1), Pp. 28-35.

Yuan Y., Hunt R. (2009) Systematic reviews: the good, the bad, and the ugly. Am J Gastroenterol;104: 1086–1092.

Zaharah H. (2005) Mendidik generasi berakhlak mulia: Fokus peranan guru pendidikan Islam. Jurnal Masalah Pendidikan, 28: 79-94.