Higher Education: Pathway to Growth

Chapter 1| Introduction:

Higher education is a fundamental base of the educational system and a key indicator of the progress of countries and people’s well-being. Universities are one of the most important institutions of higher education that provide an eternal message and bear the great burden of spreading the culture of the community and achieving its hopes and aspirations for future progress and success. They are independent scientific organizations that derive their identity and the legitimacy of their presence in the community through the functions performed by them and represented in education, academic research, and community service. Consequently, in Saudi Arabia, many people hope and expect that the universities to help achieving a better standard of socio-economic status that include enlightenment and elevation to financial stability. Additionally, in many societies, education is perceived as preparatory and qualifier for work in an economy and integration into society through teaching morals, values, norms, and beliefs held by particular society. The role of universities in contemporary society is vital to understanding the importance of different factors that shape knowledge. In the light of the study conducted by Brennen, King and Lebeau (2004) that found a significant roles played by universities in orchestration and management of social transformations, it can be seen that universities play some vital roles in contemporary societies. Notably, some transformations have been inevitable. It is the reason why people’s lives have been significantly transformed since emergence and integration of higher education. Specifically, a university provides the necessary mechanisms to train an adaptable and qualified labour force, and this includes high-level professionals, scientists, teachers, technicians and future governments among others. Evidently, the generation of new knowledge and human capital is unavoidable, because social units must go through similar experiences and this is advantageous to the contemporary society in distinctive ways. For example, economic transformations are witnessed through the creation of more employment opportunities. The generation of more wealth in the society is witnessed, and this is the reason why individuals can attain more enjoyable and fulfilling lives (Fleisher et al., 2011; Liñán et al., 2011). Consequently, economic growth is noted in a nation because various sectors thrive based on the presence of an efficient and professional workforce. Conversely, universities instigate political transformations, for example, the establishment of intermediary organizations such as university unions and importantly the 1960s political participation (students’ movements that include civil rights movements (Women Liberations and Black Power Movement) and anti-war movements) across Europe and the US, which is beneficial to contemporary society. Policies such as the protection of individual rights irrespective of their backgrounds are incorporated in government affairs. Evidently, this is advantageous as democracy prevails and people become patriotic towards their countries. On the other hand, a university triggers social transformation in contemporary society, and this happens distinctively. For instance, more educational opportunities are availed to previously disadvantaged groups so that they can attain middle class or elite positions. Moreover, the realization of a more knowledgeable, modern and tech-savvy society occurs. Cultural transformations are also prompted by the presence of universities, and this happens through nation-building prospects (Marginson, 2011; Reddy, 2004). For example, the preservation of national languages is given more weight, as universities are guardians of national languages and literature. Additionally, the reinforcement of national loyalties and values becomes inevitable. Visibly, universities play a pivotal role in contemporary societies through transformative prospects. Saudi Arabia has recently sought to transform its economy from an existing extractive economy based on oil as a single source of income, to a knowledge-based economy based on highly skilled minds and creative human resources. A knowledge economy is based on the production, generation and dissemination of knowledge, and most importantly, its use and activation. This is what Vision 2030 confirmed. Vision 2030 designed and promoted by Deputy Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman and published in 25 April 2016, puts education at the forefront of the national transformation projects and programs of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It also aims to make at least five of Saudi Arabia's universities achieve ranking positions in the top 200 international universities by year 2030. In addition, as pointed by Nofal (1990), in order for the universities to fulfil their functions successfully and adequately, they need sufficient academic freedom and an appropriate academic climate to ensure academic freedom for professors and students. Academic freedom is a special right; it is not, much rhetoric to the contrary notwithstanding, a human right or civil right or constitutional right. It is right of the professionally qualified teacher or researcher and the members of the academic community, as exercised in higher education institutions, to determine what should be taught, how it should be taught, to whom it should be taught, and how students’ progress shall be assessed (Hook, 1986, p. 6). Additionally, the right of academic freedom also includes research – with respect to research, academic freedom means the right to choose the subject of the research, how it will be undertaken, and how the results of research will be disseminated (Alzevani, 2007).

One of the most important roles of academic freedom is that it provides a platform for scholars to research and challenge existing knowledge. This is important as it ensures that erroneous research or invalid information provided to the public for purported to achieve misleading goals or agents for propaganda is eliminated (Altbach, 2001; Schrecker, 2010). Academic freedom allows scholars to voice their opinions freely on certain matters and venture out in pursuit of knowledge without the fear of discipline or censorship by any public or private body (Garcia, 2012, p. 75). Altbach (2001) suggest that the provision of freedom to voice opinions and views in a free manner among scholars is critical for knowledge development as well as innovation. Moreover, academic freedom is important for scholars to investigate an area, locate data, interpret their findings into the general fabric of knowledge available to them at the time, and communicate considered conclusions to anyone willing to listen (Morris, 1964). It also provides students and faculty with the freedom of inquiry essential to the development of education. Through the establishment of freedom of inquiry, students develop confidence to seek clarification on unconventional topics. This compels their academic instructors to broaden their teaching scope, hence, exposing them to a broad perspective of knowledge (Shils 2013, p. 249). Furthermore, it enables educational institutions to act as vehicles of public engagement. This is because it encourages debates and thoughtful discussions of complex and controversial issues that affect society. Students graduate from academic institutions more liberal and more tolerant of other people's opinions, hence creating a more cohesive society (Abraham, 2014, p. 6). Academic freedom also leads to the establishment of a society that is more democratic: as a result of academic freedom, students complete their education, having been exposed to various methods of discussion and how to present their arguments based on facts (Coleman, 1994, p. 255). Academic freedom protects teachers and students in higher education from threats that may inhibit them from studying freely and investigating whatever they are interested in, and from discussing, teaching, or publishing freely any conclusion they may have reached (Fisk, 1975). However, although academic freedom is essential in development of knowledge economy, as described in the Vision 2030 document, its development in Saudi Arabia has been relatively slow.

Vision 2030

Looking at Vision 2030 (Vision2030, 2017) it can be seen that it comes directly from the top of the hierarchy in Saudi Arabia, that is, from the King. It aims to reduce the Kingdom’s high dependence on being an oil-based economy and concentrate on the development of other sectors in the country, such as education, health care, infrastructure, as well as tourism. Saudi Arabia has a strategic advantage in terms of location being well connected to Europe, Asia, as well as Africa. Furthermore, being the dominant powerhouse financially and religiously to the Islamic world where it is one of the most developed economically in the Middle East region and the place of origin for Islam, other Muslim countries look to Saudi Arabia for economic and social development as well as religious growth. Education has been targeted by the King as one of the key factors in both the economic and social development of Saudi Arabia. The development of a thriving education system is one of the key elements of Vision 2030 and is associated with the creation of employment in the economy outside the Oil industry. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) believes that the development of higher education in the country will be beneficial for young generation, who form the majority of the Saudi population equipping them with suitably knowledge and skill for future job opportunities and ensure that they fulfil the needs within the job market. Diversity within education fields, such as several streams involving science and technology; business or management studies, etc. are expected to play a key role in the future Saudi economy. KSA has realized that more than half the population in the country is below the twenty-five year age bracket, and, thus, require proper training and education to sustain the economy in the future, and that they need to take full advantage of such a demographic by ensuring that the youth contributes favourably towards the economy through proper development of their entrepreneurial abilities by creating suitable opportunities for them. One of the main objectives of Vision 2030 is the creation of an education system within KSA that contributes towards economic growth. As such, strategizing the economy to be education driven will ultimately narrow down the current gap between the education system and the employment opportunities within the market. By the year 2030, KSA intends to elevate a minimum of five universities in the Kingdom to be ranked among the top 200 Global universities and help the students achieve the same level of academic achievement as international students, as measured by various international educational indicators (Vision2030, 2018). To ensure that the students in KSA can compete as per the global standards, the administration is developing a modern curriculum which will focus on high standard of literacy as well as the development of various skills. Soft skills such as character development are one of the key aspects of the new education system. Furthermore, students will be evaluated and provided feedback on how they can improve their performance (if required). In order to improve the performance of students, the education ministry plans to work with the private sector in the economy so that the requirements in the job market can be successfully matched with the educational objectives, and that students are well equipped to handle their jobs as soon as they finish their education. To ensure that such a scenario is plausible, the KSA has agreed to strategically invest and form partnerships with various firms in KSA where the students can be hired first as interns, or, apprentices, and then progress into permanent employment with the same companies. Finally, KSA is also investing in a centralized database where all the information of the students will be stored so that the administration can keep track of the progress of the students, plan and monitor the educational development in the Kingdom, and take corrective actions if required. These are expected to have a high impact on the development of education in the Kingdom.

1.1 The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: A Brief Overview

The Turks conquered almost all the Arab countries at the beginning of the 16th century ending in 1923 after more than 600 years rule (Anscombe 2014). The chief leader, Sultan, held absolute authority on religious and political matters. They established Ottoman rule over it, which is also called as a Caliphate system – this system emphasised that all the power belonged to the head, who was entitled by different terms in different rules, but in the case of Turks, they called their head as Sultan (Madawi 2002). Many historians regard the empire promoted extensively stability and security as well as significant achievement in religion, culture, science, and art spread in middle during its rule.

Beginning of the Conquest

The conquest began in 1514 when Sultan Selim I, conquered northern Iraq, then in 1516 gained control over Syria and Palestine and after a year seized Egypt and Hejaz – this region came to establish itself as Saudi Arabia later. The conquest was continued by Sultan Suleiman I from this time they started to conquer much of the European countries as well such as Algeria and Spain. The Turkish rule expanded, which brought the whole Arabian Peninsula under their rule (Madawi 2002). The reason which prompted Turks to gain control over the Arab countries are still a part of a debate, but many prominent scholars assert that they wanted to impose their feudal system upon people to exploit them (Ochsenwald 2016). Secondly, it allowed the Turks to control and position all the world trade routes and thirdly; this enabled them to practice piracy over the Europeans when their ships passed through the Mediterranean. In this era, piracy was considered to be a part of sea trade (Ochsenwald 2016). Ownership of land under the Ottoman rule in the Saudi Arabia – previously known as Hejaz, was very complicated as it was divided into three categories such as; State land that belonged solely to the sultan called as Mamleket; Land owned by religious authorities that belonged to the religious authorities was then called as Waqf; and, Land owned privately – belonged to the civilians was then termed as Mulk (Ochsenwald 2016). The land which was owned by the civilian was scarce, and they sold it quickly if anyone wanted to buy it. Moreover, a tax was also collected from privately owned land. There were two choices regarding the land tax (Madawi 2002). People can pay either ushr – about the tenth of earning from the land; or kharj – this tax constituted of half of the harvest. Another tax was imposed on people who were non-Muslims. This tax was called jizyah (Anscombe, 2014). The state land was further divided into two subsections: khas and military fiefs. The khas land belonged solely to the sultan and was estimated to generate a revenue of 100 thousand akchas, while, military fiefs were given to soldiers – sipahis, which remained as their family property for the rest of their lives (Masters 2013). The ruling class in Saudi Arabia under the Ottoman Rule consisted mostly of Turkish lords. The power distributed through hegemony making sultan as the supreme leader of the Empire. In the 16th century, the title changed to the caliphate, establishing him as the spiritual leader of the Muslims (Madawi 2002). The second important and powerful title was the sheikh el-Islam (Ochsenwald 2016). He was considered as the head of Muslim clergy. He was given power over the courts, legislation and madrasahs. Other titles were cadis (judges), muftis (professors of religious law) and cadi askari (military judges) (Ochsenwald 2016). They all were under the control of sheikh el-Islam (Anscombe 2014). The sultan himself dealt with the most important issues related to the state. The council was called as diwan consisting of vizirs and senior generals (Masters 2013). Nonetheless, in attempting to trace the correct modern history of Saudi Arabia, one should go as far back as 1902, when King Abdulaziz Bin Abdelrahman, the founder, with his band of loyalist followers fought and took over the city of Riyadh, which he brought back to Al-Saud family’s control (Aladel, 1998, p. 15). King Abdulaziz Bin Abdelrahman, bokrn around 1880, had then lived in exile with his father in Kuwait, where he spent his early life. After the conquest of Riyadh, he devoted 30 years of his life struggling for the consolidation of his regions in the Arabian Peninsula which he ultimately accomplished. King Abdulaziz Bin Abdelrahman, on 23 September 1932, proclaimed Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as the name of the new country, which was also declared an Islamic state. Saudi is a term that means the Al Saud family, the Saudi Arabia’s royal house. Arabia term or the Arabian Peninsula is a reference to the geographical region that carries the name that relates to the language which most of the indigenous inhabitants speak (Aladel, 1998, p. 4).

The official language of Saudi Arabia is Arabic, and the country’s constitution is based on the Holy Qur’an (Parry, 1999, p. 6). The founder King Abdulaziz passed away in 1953 after devoting most of his entire life establishing his ambitious kingdom.

1.1.1 Geographical background:

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is in the Arabian Peninsula in the furthest southwestern area of Asia. The Kingdom occupies an area of about two million square kilometres. The kingdom is administratively divided into 13 regions, including 106 governorates. The northern boundaries of the Kingdom border The Kingdom of Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait. The eastern border is The Arabian Gulf shared with Qatar, The United Arab Emirates, and The Sultanate of Oman. Its southern boundary is shared with The Sultanate of Oman and Yemen. In the west it meets the Red Sea, and Aqaba Bay (The Saudi Geological Survey, 2012). The main cities include Riyadh, located at the centre of the Kingdom which is the capital city of Saudi Arabia. Jeddah, a port city with location on the Red Sea and the holy city of pilgrimage for Muslims known as Makkah are among the major cities in the country. Others include Medina, which serves as another Muslims’ holy and cultural city, and the oil city on the Arabian Gulf known as Dammam, together with two new industrial cities of Al-Jubayl and Yanbu. For administration purposes, Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 regions (Mantagah). These regions are as follows: Al-Riyadh, Makkah Al-NFukaramah, Al-Madinah Al-munwwarah Al-Qasim, Al-Sharqiyah, Asir, Al-Bahah, Najran, Jazan, Al-Hudud Al-Shamaliyah, Al Jawf, Flail and Tabuk. A Regional Governor with the rank of a Minister heads each of these regions. This Regional Governor reports directly to the minister of Interior.

1.1.2 Demographics:

According to the Government of Saudi Arabia (2016), the total population in the Kingdom is roughly 32 million, which has shown an increase of just over 16.5% since 2010 (population was approximated at 27 million). The ratio of males to females is moderately skewed towards male at 57.5: 42.5, which is also a slight variation in the trend since 2010 (ratio of males to females at 57:43, with a median age of 26.4 years (CIA, 2017). Out of the total population of 32 million, it was further estimated that Saudis accounted for over 63% of the population against 37% of Non-Saudis, which is significantly high for a country as the immigrant population is over 30% (General Authority for Statistics, 2017). The Saudi population is now looking at modern education as a serious option, despite traditional opposition to the school system and home schooling being a preferred option in the past. Formalised education in the country was first integrated following emergence and adoption of Islam religion in the 7th CE. This formalised education as informed by believers and Islamic education teaching primarily Islamic religious and its respective values, ideals, and social morals in accordance to the Koran teachings (God’s laws) (Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1992). In 1700s, The Ottoman Empire emphasised on formalised education prioritising it in attempt to spearhead spread of Islam religion and its teachings. The public education predates the modern Saudi governance and rule. The previous education system was in the form of ‘Kuttabs’, which were primarily religious in nature and ministered by religious leaders (Ibid). With higher demand for education, comes the need for autonomy and freedom of education in the country. Thus, reforms have been planned and proposed to be fully implemented by 2030 in The Kingdom to ensure that the quality of education increases significantly in the country. Traditionally, Saudi Arabia has relied heavily on the Oil and Gas industry since its discovery in 1930s, which comprises mainly on unskilled or semi-skilled workers. However, as Saudi Arabia looks to reduce its economic dependence on Oil, there is a greater need for skilled workers in the country. Thus, education is becoming critical towards the economic development in Saudi Arabia. The economic factors are further examined in the following section. Figure 2 (below) shows the population pyramid for The Kingdom. It can be seen that a large majority of the population (both males and females) are below the age of 30, with a significant amount of the population below 25 years of age, which implies that there is a high demand for higher education in the country. The quality of education in The Kingdom can improve significantly if the educational establishments are provided with freedom.

1.1.3 Economic background:

The economy of Saudi Arabia relies heavily on its exploration and refinery oil and gases and respective by-products, which is not ubiquitous by nature, but is expected to get exhausted in the long run. Thus, there is a clear need for The Kingdom to plan its economy through diversification and little dependence on oil and gases. Hubbard and Reed (2016) report that the Royal Family of Saudi Arabia has envisioned a policy whereby The Kingdom will lower its dependence on oil money by the year 2030. The plan comprises largely promoting and developing education in the country, which is expected to develop new industries and opportunities in the economy with the rise of skilled workforce (Albassam, 2015; Fasano, and Iqbal, 2003; Samargandi et al., 2014). According to IMF (2016), the Kingdom relies heavily on oil production as its source of revenue as well as GDP, with 68% revenues coming from oil, and the Kingdom’s GDP comprises approximately 60% of the production of oil. Oil prices since 2014 have been reduced to nearly one-third (from about $100 a barrel to just $38 a barrel). As Saudi Arabia produces roughly 10 million barrels every day, with reserves exceeding 2 billion barrels, the net income from oil has diminished drastically since 2014 hampering the nation’s economic development owing to a high dependence on oil. As a few elites in The Kingdom currently control the oil industry, the workers in the industry are mainly unskilled or semi-skilled workers. However, with the development of new industries, it is expected that a majority of the population, which are below the age group of 25 will be interested in developing new skills through education. Thus, there is a clear need for Saudi Arabia to shift its dependence from oil and concentrate on other industries to contribute towards its Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Globally, over the past decade, global warming has increasingly become an environmental concern and there are global movements to mitigate and eradicate the health and environmental impacts associated with global warming and climate change. Scientist have shown existence of climate change describing it as a shift driven by increased concentration of CO2 and methane gases leading to change in weather and climatic conditions (Trenberth et al., 2014; Dai, 2013; Nordhaus, 2014). In the wake of industrial revolution resulting in release of huge amounts of greenhouse gases (methane and carbon dioxide) to the environment has threaten to imbalance the climatic patterns, living structures of living things, increased natural disasters (droughts, hurricanes, flooding, rainfall, and frequent and intense heat waves). Recently data indicate burning of fossil fuels (oil products and natural gases) as the major causes of drastic increase in greenhouses gases levels (Shakun et al., 2012; Arora et al., 2011). Although several approaches have been proposed aimed at curbing the climate change, most of the proponents hold consensus on need to cut down limiting the release of greenhouse gases to the environment. As a result, there is increased advocacy of shifting from fossil fuels to renewable (clean energy) such as solar, wind, nuclear, hydropower, geothermal, and biomass. As opined by Alyami, (2014) globalization has a significant impact on any country’s educational system, including The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Hence, in 2007, Saudi Arabia began a system of reforms in the educational sector, particularly with regards to the education of girls, despite traditional and cultural barriers in society (Alyami, 2014). Figure 3 below, shows the government budget and spending on education. For the last five years, almost a quarter of the government’s annual budgets have been used on developing education in the country, which is in line with its 2030 vision to enhance education in the region and create more jobs outside the oil industry. With the realization that education is of strategic importance to the future economic development in the Kingdom, Saudi Arabia spends roughly 25% of its overall expenditure on developing education compared to an average of 10% in developed nations such as USA and UK. Furthermore, where countries such as US, UK and other European countries spend less than 5% of their GDP on education, it was found that Saudi Arabia currently spends over 10% of its GDP on the educational sector, making it the highest in the world (Mohammad, 2013).

The government of Saudi Arabia understands the significance of education and is centred on advancing the same. Since the majority of the Saudi populace is less than 30 years old. Saudi Arabia can effectively implement Vision 2030 by making viable utilization of the learning, abilities, and capacity of this segment of youngsters. With this acknowledgment, Saudi Arabia has found a way to improve the nature of training in the Kingdom. The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Salman Bin Abdulaziz Al-Saud authorized a five-year design worth more than 80 billion Riyals (US$21.33 billion) in 2014 to extend and enhance Saudi Arabia's training division. This was an extra investment to the current yearly allotment of the instruction service. He additionally began a remodelling drive of state schools and colleges. In the 2016 Saudi spending plan, 200 billion Riyals were authorized for development and extension of instruction. The budget allocation for development and extension of instruction was the second highest annual budget expenditure after social insurance.

Political and Legal Background of Saudi Arabia:

Saudi Arabia is under the rule of a monarch, which implies that the King holds supreme power in the country, and is responsible for the running of the State, as well as defending the State against outside threats and maintaining general law and order within the Kingdom. Additionally, as Saudi Arabia is a Muslim country, the King is also responsible for upholding the religion of Islam in the country, and, is often referred to as the “Custodian of the two holy mosques.” The law of the land is determined as per the Holy Book of Muslims known as the Quran, and, its law – Shariah. The Saudi Arabian Constitution contains 83 articles divided into 9 chapters, the first article is The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a sovereign Arab Islamic state with Islam as its religion; God's Book and the Sunnah of His Prophet, God's prayers and peace be upon him, are its constitution. Arabic is its national and official language and Riyadh is its capital. The internal matters of the state such as security and education are the primary responsibility of the Royal Family, who strategizes the development of the Kingdom (Abir, 2013; Blanchard, 2010). The economic development in the Kingdom has been largely focused on oil in the past (Foley, and Foley, 2010). However, with the oil reserves set to dry out soon, education is currently being developed in the country to ensure that the economy of Saudi Arabia continues to grow post the petroleum economy. The clear shift towards a future knowledge-based economy is envisioned by the King and with the 2030 Vision; the administration is planning to create millions of jobs in various other sectors such as automobile manufacture and metal mining. Traditionally, Saudi Arabia has had a strong resistance against education, especially for females in the Kingdom. However, as pointed by Al-Rasheed (2010), Smith & Abouammoh (2013), and Al Alhareth et al. (2015), due to globalization, the traditional and cultural barriers to education are fast being replaced with a more orthodox belief in equality and right to education. In spite of the various efforts made by the administration, the current education system in the Kingdom is under strong control and regulations (Elyas and Picard, 2013; Smith, and Abouammoh, 2013). According to Elyas and Picard (2013), there is a clear need for liberal policies so that the educational sector can function freely, develop into a much higher quality, and create the supply of adequate resources for the young men and women in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia has a high majority of a young population. These are the current and future workforce and need to be trained and educated for economic success in the future.

Question of the Study

Is academic freedom possible in Saudi Arabia?

Purposes of the Study:

This study seeks to:

Identify faculty members’ understanding of academic freedom at Saudi Universities.

Explore the extent or degree to which academic freedom is available to faculty members in Saudi Arabian universities.

Investigate the barriers faculty members face with respect to academic freedom in Saudi Arabian universities.

Recommend ways of developing faculty members’ academic freedom at Saudi University.

Make comparisons between Saudi Arabia and the European Union with respect to the protection for academic freedom

The problem to be investigated:

Universities are a key element in the structure of contemporary society, where they are considered essential strongholds of science, thought, and culture, where ideas meet, opinions are put forth, dialogues held, and research studies completed. Within contemporary societies, the principles and values of universities are universally considered an essential part of the cultural life of the nation (Zaidi 2000, p. 207). Despite the vital role played by the universities, in the Arab world, they still experience many problems, which in turn affect the effectiveness of the higher education system. According to Shaban (2007, p. 275), academic researchers and university professors continue to suffer from a lack of freedom. For example, academics have restrictions imposed on them, which force them to abide by the established curriculum, which often has a specific narrow direction. In addition, the Saudi government still intervenes in public universities’ policy through a unified act issued by the Higher Education Council. There is also a centralization of power by government ministries, and there is no regulatory act for protecting and organizing academic freedom in Saudi Arabian universities. Alissa (2011, p. 74) points out that, within the context of the Saudi Arabian public and private higher education sector, the concept of academic freedom is almost absent from the academic literature. Moreover, Romanowski and Nasser (2010, p. 495) make the point that: “Little research has been conducted on academic freedom in the Arab world or elsewhere in the Middle East”. The possible exception is the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, as the founders of the university - King Abdullah University for Science and Technology (KAUST) was established by Royal Decree No. A / 151 and opened officially on the 23 September 2009. The Board of Trustees was formed by royal decree on 3 October 2008. The Council was composed of 20 members, headed by Ali Al Nuaimi who has also served Saud Arabia as a Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources. The Board appoints the Rector and approves the appointment of senior management and faculty members and the rules governing the academic, financial, and administrative affairs of the University as well as providing support to those responsible for running its day-to-day operations (Al-Shobakky, 2018). In accordance with the statute of the Council, members of this Permanent Independent Council meet at least three times each year to oversee the activities of the League and to monitor its progress and development insisted that there should be no intellectual, cultural, or political limits on the university or its members, and thereby ensured freedom for scientists and researchers to do their studies and research in order to use their creativity to produce new knowledge. As mentioned above, KAUST is managed by independent trustees which make is unlike Saudi Arabia’s other state-run universities. Their autonomy is guaranteed by the endowment, which will be managed abroad by a foundation claimed to be independent of Saudi government control. The independence of governance from MoE control provides the opportunity for KAUST to attain its mission with adequate flexibility to achieve its ambitious goals. With an abundance of financial resource and favourable work conditions and employment incentives, KAUST has been able to attract high calibre faculty and provide them with productive and rewarding research environment, one of them is Professor Jean M. J. Fréchet. Professor Fréchet who is the author of over 800 publications, 200 patents, and 110,000 citations, has won several awards in the field of organic, polymer, and materials chemistry. Moreover, he has worked in the broader area nanotechnology and nanoscience within entrepreneurial and academic purview (KAUST, 2019). Because of him, the university has been ranked as number 1 in the world in citations per faculty. With respect to the case of Saudi Arabia, political, religious, and socio-cultural factors play a vital role in affecting academic freedom. Thus, the study focuses on analysing the concept of academic freedom of faculty members in Saudi universities and its current status and facets, and the factors that limit it, with suggestions that would develop academic freedom in Saudi universities.

Importance of the Study:

By reflecting on the aims of the study, it poses several benefits for higher education in Saudi Arabia. The study will aid the development of academic freedom by offering the following:

The study will help understand faculty members’ understanding of academic freedom and explore the level of academic freedom among faculty members at Saudi universities

It will lead to the development and enhancement of performance in the higher education system in Saudi Arabia. It aims to achieve this goal by establishing avenues for realizing academic freedom, but according to the points of view of faculty members concerned about higher education in the country.

It will also contribute to the development and enhancement of performance by faculty members by analysing their knowledge and understanding of academic freedom.

The study will provide realistic examples of faculty members who have realized academic freedom, and their understanding and conceptualization of academic freedom, which can be used in other universities in the country, and in other developing countries in the region to enhance educational development and performance.

It will also show some of the difficulties faced by faculty members in Saudi universities, and these findings can be used to solve problems in other universities in the country, as well as other universities in countries with similar conditions as those in Saudi Arabia.

1.6 Limitations of the Study:

The study will be limited to Saudi public universities.

The study will be limited to faculty members in Saudi public universities.

The reason for not addressing private education in this study is that the private educational institutions differ from the governmental institutions in terms of funding. However, with regard to governance, all the private and public universities and colleges are under the control and regulation of the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). On the other hand, the technical colleges, are managed and controlled by the Ministry of Labour and are supervised by the General Organization for Technical Education and Vocational Training (GOTVOT) (MOHE, 2009). The institutions of higher education in Saudi Arabia have an independent budget that is established by the interest, needs, and expenses of the Board of the charitable institution. The Board of the charitable institution that establishes the college as stipulated in Article 1 of the regulation of non-governmental colleges for profit. Private universities were originally founded in the UAE, Egypt, Jordan, and Sudan, but they varied in terms of quality, educational methods, and success. The first private university in Saudi was the King Abdul Aziz University (KAAU), which was established in 1967 but was later transformed to a public university in 1971 (Batarfy, 2005).). According to Willoughby (2008, p. 25), the Gulf countries experienced “an explosion of new higher education institutions in the small GCC countries”. By the year 1992 and 2007, the gulf countries had about 54 newly established private universities with connections from the Asian region or the West. They included the UAE-21; Kuwait-5; Qatar-4; Bahrain-4; and Oman-19 (Willoughby, 2008). By 2012, the kingdom of Saudi Arabia had 9 universities and 18 private colleges (Jamjoom, 2012). The private higher education in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia has a small proportion of the cumulative student numbers compared with the public higher education, as it comprises of 3.49% of the cumulative student admission. Such numbers of student enrolment are also lower compared to the total number of enrolment of students in technical colleges, which is approximately 9.28% of the cumulative enrolment. The enrolment for the public universities is approximately at 70% of the total student enrolment (MOHE, 2009). Saudi Arabia currently has 28 public (universities that are publicly owned and funded by government either regional or national funds) and 13 private (independent universities that are privately funded and set respective goals and policies) universities spread across the Kingdom. The numbers of students in public universities as well as the number of university institutions in the Kingdom have grown by nearly five times between 1989 and 2012, with a high growth rate recorded between 1999 and 2012. There were no private universities in 1989 in Saudi Arabia, but, by the end of 2012, the number of private universities too had grown. Thus, between 1999 and 2012, there was a high growth in the number of universities in the Kingdom.

1.7 Methodology and Research Methods:

To address the research questions, a mixed research methodology was adopted. A questionnaire has been used, due to the size and variety of the sector in SA, which made it difficult to get in touch with all academic staff personally. The questionnaires gathered information concerning faculty members’ understanding of academic freedom in Saudi Arabian universities and enable exploration of the extent or degree academic freedom is available to faculty members. Moreover, it will identify the barriers that faculty members face. In addition, the questionnaires will examine if there are any significant differences in faculty members’ notion of academic freedom with regard to gender, academic position, faculty, and discussion, which will be used in the collected fieldwork data. Semi-structured interviews have been used to look more in depth regarding the understanding and the experience of academic freedom for faculty members.

1.8 The Organization of the Study:

Based on the aims and objectives of this research, this thesis is divided into seven chapters. The chapters are organized as follows:

Chapter 1: Introduction

In this chapter a general background of Saudi Arabia such as, geographic, socio-demographic characteristics, political, aims and objectives of the study are outlined. Finally, the plan of the thesis is described are all explained in this chapter.

Chapter 2: the literature review which covers, the higher education system in Saudi Arabia, and the literature review of academic freedom.

Chapter 3: describes the study methodology, entry into the study, the population of the study, the sampling of the study, research approach, and data collection.

Chapter 4: presents data analysis procedures and findings

Chapter 5: Conclusions based on the results of data analysis; the discussion is presented in a manner that links the findings to each study objective. The study had many distinct objectives; hence certain conclusions are set out in relation to each objective. In this final chapter, a summary is presented of the data, the thesis concludes with policy recommendations and suggestions for further research in this area.

Chapter 2: Literature review

2.0 Introduction:

This chapter of the study provides a review of the elements, system, and the aims of higher education in the Kingdom of in Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, this section also discusses how higher education started in the country, and how the increased financial allocation to the education system will help it develop as the Kingdom looks to move into a knowledge-based economy soon (as per Vision 2030). The chapter will also examine the background of the education system in Saudi Arabia. Education in general, especially higher education is an important and vital issue, as it deals with building human capacities, which is the essential element in all development issues with its social, economic and cultural aspects. As higher education is the stage of specialization and practical preparation at all levels and types of education to fulfil various societal needs at present and, in a way, which conforms to the development that any nation seeks to achieve its goals and objectives. Primarily, the section is sub-sectioned into two; 1. Higher education in Saudi Arabia 2. Academic freedom. The higher education section focuses to critically review the literature on higher education systems, structures and policy driving development of education, source of funding (primarily public universities), and progress. Whereas, the second section focuses on the academic freedom in higher education across the global that includes freedom of teaching, academic freedom in KSA, Arab and Muslim universities, and in contemporary society. It also highlights the aspects of academic freedom capturing elements of shared governance, tenure, academic freedom for teaching, and academic freedom for research. Lastly, it discusses in depth the origin and evolution of academic freedom. This incorporates the emergence of academic freedom in the Greek civilization and Islamic civilization, review link between academic freedom and universities as well as model of universities and academic freedom (British and Humboldtina).

2.1: Higher education in Saudi Arabia

2.1.1: Aims of higher education in Saudi Arabia

The General Educational Policy of Saudi Arabia has 236 articles and it provides for the goals and aims of education in Saudi Arabia, which are further founded on the Islamic religion (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Education, 1995). Additionally, the policy states that the purpose of education in general is to satisfy the needs of the society and reflect its cultural norms and ways of living. The purposes and goals of education in any country represent the cultural values and beliefs of its citizens (Ksastudies.net, 1995) and for Saudi Arabia, these are:

To develop the doctrine of loyalty to God, by endeavouring to provide the student with Islamic culture to be able to recognize her/his responsibilities before God for the Nation of Islam; to have valuable scientific and practical abilities.

To prepare highly-qualified citizens scientifically and intellectually able to perform their duty in the service of their country and the advancement of their nation, in the light of the right doctrine and principles of Islam.

To provide an opportunity for talented students in postgraduate studies of science disciplines.

To play a positive role in the field of scientific research, which contributes to the field of global progress in arts, science and inventions, and to find the right solutions appropriate to the requirements of life and the technological trends.

To promote the movement of authorship and scientific production, adapting sciences that serve the Islamic idea, and show leadership in building a civilization on valued principles, which leads humanity to righteousness and enlightenment, and avoid distortions of physical and atheistic beliefs.

To translate knowledge of science and useful arts to the language of the Quran [Arabic], and the development of the wealth of the Arabic language (terminology), to meet the needs of Arabization, and make knowledge accessible to the largest number of citizens.

To implement training services and innovative studies to post-graduates who are in employment in order to introduce innovations to them

2.1.2: Organizational Structure

The highest authority in Saudi higher education is the Ministry of Education. On the 29th January 2015, a royal decree was issued by King Salman Bin Abdulaziz to merge the Ministry of Education with the Ministry of Higher Education into one ministry on behalf of the Ministry of Education, and appoint Dr. Azzam al-Dakhil as its first minister for this new ministry. It is responsible for all kinds of education in Saudi Arabia. Education in Saudi Arabia has four characterizing qualities: an attention to the instruction of Islam; centralized system of control; state financing; and the general strategy of gender isolation (Smith and Abouammoh, 2013, p2)

2.1.3: System of Education in Saudi Arabia:

The system of education in Saudi Arabia is based on a twelve-year system, divided into six years of primary education, a further three years of intermediate schooling, and finally, secondary education of three years (Clark,2014). The twelve-year system, provides students with the option of either starting work right after high school, and, prepares them suitably if they wish to pursue higher learning in a specific field. As opined by Singe et al., (2012) the twelve years spent in schools for children and adolescents essentially lays the foundations for the student, where a student is well equipped to handle pressure, as well as excel in his or her field. During the secondary education of three years, students have an option to choose from three main streams, which are; (i) General academic stream; (ii) Religious studies; and, (iii) Vocational or Commercial studies (Clark, 2014). After completing secondary schooling, students are required to appear for a State examination known as the General Secondary Examination, which is under the purview of the Regional Directorates of Education. Passing the examination is a prerequisite towards higher education in the country, as the students are awarded with a Certificate of Passing the examination known as Tawjihi (Azzeh, 2013). The curriculum and examination are both supervised by the schools themselves; however, it is found to be regulated by the Education Ministry in Saudi Arabia. Higher education in the Kingdom is largely based out of state-run schools and universities where the language of instruction is Arabic. However, there are a few private institutions in the Kingdom, especially targeting the children of ex-patriots living in Saudi Arabia where English is the preferred language of instruction. In technical and scientific studies, such as medicine and engineering, English is found to be the language of instruction in all schools in Saudi Arabia and is also a compulsory subject during higher education. Both the state and private schools are increasingly using English over Arabic, or, both English and Arabic to prepare the students in Saudi Arabia for future challenges in a truly global economy. Currently, the Saudi labour market is largely self-sufficient, with a small number of people migrating out of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia, however, has a large number of immigrant population within the country itself, with 30% of its total population coming from outside the Kingdom. A large part of the immigrant population works in finance and healthcare, where English is commonly used. Thus, with the increasing focus on English in schooling, and, now, being preferred over Arabic, the Saudi administration is looking to reduce the need of the immigration workforce in these sectors and ensure that local Saudis can benefit from such opportunities outside the oil industry. The academic year in higher education in Saudi Arabia is based on two semester periods, much like the American system, with an option of a summer semester for students. Furthermore, higher learning in the Kingdom follows a pattern similar to the American system where associate degrees are based on a two-year structure, bachelor’s degrees are based on four years, and, master’s degrees require a two-year period to be successfully accomplished. While a four year bachelor’s program seems too long for students, and countries such as India have a three year bachelor’s degree, or a four year bachelors cum master’s degree, Taniguchi and Kaufman, (2005) believe that a four year degree is more suited for the academic development of young adults, and provides them with more comprehensive learning, and thus, a higher chance of success to land a job, and, be successful in the job. According to Al Asmari, (2014), science is the most prominent stream of education in Saudi Arabia, and, many students from developed nations such as the UK and the US who eventually pursue higher education in this field. As oil is the most sought-after industry in the Kingdom, with the oil industry making up over 60% of Saudi Arabia’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), many students start working in this sector right after high school and do not opt for higher education. However, with the administration in Saudi Arabia now focusing on a knowledge-based economy and aiming to prepare itself for less dependence on the oil industry, the King has taken a personal interest in promoting and developing education in the country. More and more students are now being encouraged to pursue higher education rather than working right after high school. Universities such as KAUST (King Abdullah University of Science and Technology) were specifically set up back in 2003 to promote education and higher learning in the field of science and technology. According to Durrani, (2009), KAUST has fast become a centre for excellence in the field of science and technology in the Middle East. With KAUST attracting over 60% foreign students, Saudi Arabia has managed to make technological advancements in the field of scientific research, and, helped the formation of various new start-up companies in the Kingdom such as “FalconViz” founded by former PhD students at the University (King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, 2015). This signals a clear move on part of the Saudi administration to envision an economy without a high reliance on the oil industry, which will run dry soon.

2.1.4: Higher Education Background

Higher education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has gained special attention from the state due to its sense of duty towards its citizens to achieve desired developmental goals. It started with 1949, upon the establishment of the Sharia College in Makkah, which was the core of higher education. The Directorate of Higher Knowledge and Teachers ‘ College in Makkah followed this in 1952 that turned out to be Teacher Training College later on (Hakim, 2012, p. 127). Until 1980, Sharia College and Teachers College were under the purview of the University of King Abul Aziz in Jeddah. However, after the establishment of Om Al Qura University, they were supervised by Om Al Qura University. In 1967/68, higher education study for females at UQU began as an external course (Intisab) in Islamic Law that aimed to produce well-qualified female teachers (Al-dawood, 1996, p.197-198) During the Islamic civilization era, the mosques in the Kingdom were the only source of higher learning along with home schooling. The two main mosques in the country; Makkah Al Mukaramah and Medina al Munawarah were the highest centre of higher education which saw different streams of education, including science. In 1949, King Abdulaziz Al Saud established the College of Islamic Science (as per the Shari’a) in the mosque of Makkah, followed by a Teacher’s College in 1952 at the same mosque. King Fahd Bin Al Saud, in 1953 (crown prince at the time) was appointed as the first minister in the Ministry of Education in KSA. This led to the foundation of College of Islamic Science in Riyadh in the same year, followed by the College of Arabian language and Literature in 1954. In 1957, Riyadh University (currently known as King Saud University) was established with only twenty-one students and a staff comprising of nine people with King Fahd Bin Abdulaziz Al Saud as its first head. Soon, Saudi Arabia began seeing a rise in education, with a number of schools and colleges being established, the most noted one being the Islamic University in the mosque of Al Madinah in 1961 and King Abdul Aziz University in 1967. Thereafter, in 1975, the Ministry of Higher Education was removed from the Ministry of Education to focus on higher education. However, in 2015, the Ministry of Higher Education was once again merged with the Ministry of Education.

Figure 5 (above) shows the growth in universities in the Kingdom classified as Public and Private universities. Public universities are those which are controlled by the State and receives its financing directly from the administration, whereas Private universities are funded by private organizations or individuals.

Figure 6 (above) shows the growth in public and private colleges in the Kingdom. Colleges are different from Universities as universities are a centre of higher learning and include colleges which offer a bachelor’s degree, whereas, universities offer a bachelor’s degree as well as a master’s degree, and often have doctoral program for research activities. From Figure 6 it can be seen that the Kingdom has seen a high growth rate in the number of new colleges between 1999 and 2012. Thus, it can be clearly seen that educational reforms began in the Kingdom only after 1999.

With the growth in the number of universities and colleges, it is only natural that the country sees a rise in the academic department over the period as well. Figure 7 (above) shows the growth in the academic department in public and private universities and colleges between 1989 and 2012. As observed in Figures 5 and 6, it can also be observed that the academic department in the Kingdom saw a sharp rise between 1999 and 2012, signalling the beginning of an educational based economy in the Kingdom, which is in line with the King’s vision for a knowledge-based economy by the end of 2030.

Figures 8 and 9 (above) show the ratio of male and female population since 1999 until 2012. The number of female students, vis-à-vis male students was higher until 2009. Since 2009, the increase of male students for higher education has grown more than the increase in the number of female students. Between 2010 and 2012 however, there was an increased growth in the number of female students than male students, even though the total number of male students was higher than females. This suggests that after 2009, the administration in KSA has concentrated on encouraging higher education in the Kingdom, suggested by the sharp rise of total students since 2009. Additionally, the administration is keen on taking steps to reduce the gender bias in education and remove traditional barriers in female education. Recent indices show that higher education in the Kingdom has achieved several successes and achievements, represented by an increase in the number of universities and colleges, major growth in student categories and staff members. In addition to general improvements in most of the other higher education indexes, universities saw a huge increase in number. In the era of King Abdullah (post 2006), higher education has witnessed a major shift, with the introduction of a scholarship program. This program represented leadership interest in science and science students and provided solid evidence of the generous support for the higher education sector. Due to this support, the state has allocated billions of riyals to send students to the best universities abroad during the past ten years. Sending students abroad is based upon required fields by developmental plans to obtain Bachelor’s, Master’s, and PhD. degrees.

2.1.5: Saudi Arabia in World-Class Ranking.

Based on the on a study conducted by Smith & Abouammoh (2013), It is quite unfortunate that education systems and approach in Saudi Arabia has been continuously criticized. This is especially with consideration of the quality of the education system, which the country now maintains. The major concerns are focused on curriculum content and the focus is much more on theoretical concepts and the teaching of academic subjects, resulting in the neglect of practical methods of teaching and learning (Smith & Abouammoh, 2013, p. 6). Increasing media coverage of universities and higher education institutions classifications is resulting in the national system gaining worldwide attention. This is because the results reflect the exerted efforts of governments, especially for countries that allocate huge budgets for the education sector, aiming to harvest and interpret these exerted efforts through the quality of scientific achievements. This no longer is a privilege of developed countries, as underdeveloped countries are catching up quickly, as is the case in Saudi Arabia (Alsdiqi, 2014, p. 8). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has allocated about 217 billion riyals (£42.6 billion), representing about 25% of the budget accredited expenditure in 2015 (Higher Education Ministry, 2015). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, in addition to other Arab Universities, was not performing well according to international classifications. In the Times Higher Education Ranking, which has been conducted by a British firm since 2004, in 2010, the King Saud University was ranked 221, while King Fahad University of Petroleum and Minerals was ranked 225, and King Abdulaziz University was ranked 401 out of 450. In the Academic ranking of World Universities, four Saudi Universities have made it in the top 500 universities in the world. They are:

Working hard to reach a higher position in university rankings, mainly for the purpose of attaining higher standards, has always posed severe challenges and has thus become something of a concern among the authorities in Saudi universities, who believe that university ranking is an excellent way of improving both the internal and external quality of their schools. There have been serious discourses and debates on ranking issues going on both within and outside the circles of the university community and environment since 2007 (Mazi & Altabach, 2013, p. 20-21). Freedom of institutions of higher ranking is a major factor that determines their classification. While the criterion that is used to rank the universities has been criticised, the rank of the universities should be seen as an important value that determines the status and quality of the universities (Karran & Mallinson, 2018). One of the important issues that define the rankings is the freedom of the universities. Freedom is an issue that has not been appreciated in many universities including those in western countries such as the United States. However, universities that have embraced the culture of freedom have ranked the best in the world, which include Oxford and Harvard. Their contribution to the economies of their country and the rest of the world has been great. The Saudi Arabia Universities have to embrace freedom in the universities as a way of ensuring that they achieve world-class universities. Having world class universities means that students from all over the world would be attracted to such universities, hence drawing serious students with a wealth of knowledge. In summary, the Saudi universities would improve a lot in their global rankings, attract highly qualified professionals, and achieve quality graduates if they are guaranteed the freedom that they need. The privilege should extend to the choice of the leaders, research, and teaching activities in the universities. This will ensure that the universities can conduct credible research, teach the relevant curriculum, and have graduates who are open-minded and understand the world issues and how they can be handled best. Such freedom would ensure that the students do the courses that they like and get deep knowledge and experience as well as facts about what they are to face in the workplace once they graduate. In the absence of freedom of research and exchange of information, it is difficult to conduct research and development. Therefore, the current educational system has failed to implement the significant aspects of academic freedom, as well as promote the idea of creativity, discussions, and debate. Such actions have now turned out as the typical practices in the universities of Saudi Arabia. To improve the current situation, the Ministry of Education made radical changes forming a new structure for universities in 2003 to cope with Saudi and global labour market trends. It managed to do so by conducting several programs, procedures, and short, medium- and long-term plans. Moreover, the Ministry established the National Commission for Academic Accreditation and Assessment (NCAAA) in 2003 to be responsible for academic accreditation and quality assurance in higher education institutions. Furthermore, the Ministry launched the “AFAQ” program in 2009 with the hopes of climbing up the world rankings ladder. The iniatives as drafted with aim of conducting studies into various disciplines that include management, infrastructure, job market, admission and capacity, organization, education and graduate education, and importantly scientific and community services. The 25-year plan was aimed to steer the country into a revamped higher education system characterised by inclusive and equality-based education (improved higher education for women), tackle country’s shortage of scientific knowledge and skills, and boost scientific and engineering research. After formulation, the first steps in implementation of the initiatives was establishment of new universities in Majamaa, Dammam, Shaqra, and Alkharj, creation of 49 technical colleges, 142 vocational centres, and launching of women’s university that could be considered largest globally. The AFAQ program will help Saudi universities to have a good world ranking by providing budding entrepreneurs with the opportunity to deliver their business ideas and not be limited by their lack of capital. Under the program, entrepreneurs are provided funding to execute their business plans and grow their business without being hindered by lack of money.

2.1.6: Financial Allocation to Education in Saudi Arabia:

Article (223) of the Education Policy Document in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia stipulates that education is free in all its forms and stages. The state does not charge tuition fees from students for their education. The annual increases in education funding allocations reflect the care and status of education in the comprehensive development process witnessed in all areas. The state grants monthly bonuses and benefits to students and it provides female students enrolled in colleges with free transportation. Government allocations for higher education (universities) from the state budget are the main source of funding for universities. A special budget is prepared for government universities separately and each university has its own 5-years plan separate to its annual budget, which is, determined when the Council of Ministers approves the general budget. The financial regulations of universities allowed the acceptance of grants, donations and endowments granted by individuals and commissions, in a way that does not contradict the objectives of the university (Ministry of Education, 2004). Saudi Arabia’s 2017 budget shifts will increase spending to meet the goals of the National Transformation Program and Vision 2030. Oil costs have reduced government spending in previous years; however, the Saudi Government expects the price of oil to rise in 2017 and has adjusted its budget consequently. The Energy Valuation Reform program can produce extra revenue despite some new allowances for voters like the Cash Transfer Program (CTP) that will shield middle- and low-income families from higher energy costs. The budget additionally seeks to come up with extra savings through programs that promote potency and responsibility. The Council of Economic and Development Affairs (CEDA) has created entities to manage this transition, as well as the defrayment Rationalization workplace, the National Centre for Performance measurement (Adaa), the Nonoil Development Unit, the Delivery Unit, and CEDA’s Project Management workplace.

Conclusion:

Higher education in KSA has been a topic of debate within the country as the Kingdom looks to move into an economic era that is not highly dependent on its oil reserves. The administration has taken various steps in developing education in the Kingdom to help the sector match the requirements of the job market. With the implementation of Vision 2030, it is expected the Kingdom will be able to produce high-ranking educational establishments globally and ensure that the development of education in the Kingdom is as per the King’s plan. The following section discusses the general concept of academic freedom.

2.2: ACADEMIC FREEDOM

2.2.1: Introduction and Background

This subsection will discuss academic freedom by examining its origin, emergence, and evolution in the Kingdom of Saud Araba. It covers different purviews of academic freedom that include freedom of teaching and speech in Saudi Arabia, Arab and Muslim universities, and in contemporary society. The literature will also comprise of the different academic freedom models such as British model and Humboldtina. Perceiving research as fundamental into advancement of the truth, it reflects on aspects of academic freedoms that include shared governance, tenure, freedom for research, and teaching in Saudi Arabia, Arab, Muslim, and contemporary universities. According to Spiro (2003, p. 315), academic freedom is the freedom that is given by the state and community to the academic fraternity so as to ensure their ability in the fulfilment of their duties and responsibilities that have been accorded to them. This is driven by need to deliver quality services from the university to the general society as well as successfully contribute to the enhancement of humanity. Academic freedom appears to be a simple concept, and it is, but the problem lies in defining it. It is noted by Thorens (2006, p. 92), that academic freedom, within the European context, dates back to the medieval period. Glenn (2000, p.1) mentioned that academic freedom is generally understood to refer to the right of university faculty to follow their research wherever it leads them, and to teach their students based upon their own best understanding of the truth. Moreover, academic freedom is the freedom that a teacher has to investigate and discuss any controversial economic, social, or political problem, without fearing penalties and interference from organized groups and state or university officials (Josephson, 2014). It establishes the professor’s right to remain true to his intellectual commitments and pedagogical philosophy (Gobkel, & Seggie, 2015, p.10). In this way, it preserves the integrity of the education system and serves society well. The right to the freedom of speech has been provided in most of the constitutions. Nonetheless, many states have also included the right to academic freedom in their constitutions. Based on a study conducted by Karran & Mallinson (2017), in Europe, twenty-seven European Union States, except the United Kingdom have a written constitution that outlines and provides for the right of freedom of speech. Additionally, the written constitutions of twenty European Union States have addressed and provided for academic freedom directly, while indirectly giving provisions for academic freedom through the rights of freedom of speech. This is evident from the Constitution of the States in Spain, whereby Article 20 explicitly states “The following rights are recognized and protected: c) the right to academic freedom”. Similarly Article 16.6 of the Greece constitution protects the academic tenure of professors, viz.: “Professors of university level institutions shall not be dismissed prior to the lawful termination of their term of service, except in the cases of the substantive conditions provided by article 88 paragraph 4 and following a decision by a council constituted in its majority of highest judicial functionaries, as specified by law”. The constitutions of other EU nations do not always refer to academic freedom explicitly, but the majority nevertheless provides some guarantee for the substantive elements of academic freedom, the Constitution of Hungary, for example, ensures: “the freedom of learning for the acquisition of the highest possible level of knowledge, and, within the framework laid down in an Act, the freedom of teaching”. As well as providing protection for academic freedom within their constitutions (which is frequently couched in general terms), most of the EU states have specific HE. laws that provide detailed information on how their universities are to be run – for example the Finnish Universities Law of 2009 has 93 sections covering (inter alia) mission; institutional autonomy; the university community; legal capacity of universities; freedom of research; arts and teaching; degrees and the degree structure; languages of instruction; organs of a university; board of the public university; appointment composition; functions and terms of office of the university board; election; powers and duty of care of the rector of a university; composition; functions and powers of the collegiate body of a university; university regulations and rules; administrative procedure and confidentiality; employment relations of the personnel; duties; appointment and title of professor; liability under criminal law. Such laws usually contain an explicit reference to academic freedom. Another example is the Universities Act of 1997 of Ireland, which provides that “A member of the academic staff of a university shall have the freedom, within the law, in his or her teaching, research and any other activities either in or outside the university, to question and test received wisdom, to put forward new ideas and to state controversial or unpopular opinions”. There exist other recommendations that provide for academic freedom at the international level. For example, the Lima Declaration of 1988 provides for the protection of academic freedom as well as institutional autonomy. The declaration according to Owusu-Ansah, (2015, p.175), states that academic freedom is the freedom of the academic affiliate community at a collective and individual concept that is focused on the development and transfer of ideas and information through research, lectures, teaching, documentation among other modes of knowledge transfer. Furthermore, academic freedom is also understood to be a pre-requisites of education, administrative and research activities, which are essential to higher institutions of learning. Through the principles of academic freedom, the affiliate members of the institutions have a duty of carrying out their responsibilities without discrimination and/or fear from any source or the state in particular. Nevertheless, academic freedom offers a platform for challenging the existing literature and research to scholars. This is further supported by Fisk (1975), who asserts that academic freedom provides protection to students and academics staff in higher learning institutions from threats and fears that could hinder them from having stress free studies and investigative research in their areas of interests. This is important as it ensures that erroneous research or invalid information provided to the public for development purposes is eliminated. Academic freedom allows scholars to voice their opinions freely on certain matters and venture out in pursuit of knowledge without the fear of discipline or censorship by any public or private body (Garcia, 2012, p. 75). The provision of freedom to voice opinions and views in a free manner among scholars is critical for knowledge development as well as innovation. Academic freedom is a significant aspect to academics who focus on different areas and subjects for investigative research. This is because it helps them in their research findings (Morris, 1964). It also provides students and faculty with the freedom of inquiry essential to the development of education. Through the establishment of freedom of inquiry, students develop confidence to seek clarification on unconventional topics. This compels their academic instructors to broaden their teaching scope, hence, exposing them to a broad perspective of knowledge (Shils 2013, p. 249). Nonetheless, academic freedom helps the learning institutions to act as overseers for purposes of public participation in large social issues such as poor governance, discrimination, poverty, and other divisive issues (Vrielink et al., 2011; Calhoun, 2009). This is in the sense that, academic freedom brings out the arguments that seek to address issues that are contentious and complex to the wider society. Academic freedom also leads to the establishment of a society that is more democratic: as a result of academic freedom, students complete their education, having been exposed to various methods of discussion, development of own opinion, and how to present their arguments based on facts (Coleman, 1994, p. 255).

2.2.2: ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION OF ACADEMIC FREEDOM

One of the problems that have been highlighted in this paper is the definition of academic freedom; there are different models between different countries. In this chapter, we will look at different models of academic freedom from different countries to be able to identify common elements among the models. In attempt to develop a clear perspective of academic freedom and its place in contemporary universities, this section scrutinizes the emergence of academic freedom delving back into Greek civilization, Islamic civilization, and foundation of academic freedom in universities.

2.2.2.1: Emergence of academic freedom in the Greek civilization

Historical analyses reveal that Greek Civilization had started in the 12th century BC and the period between 400 and 1200 BC was the starting point of Hellenic educational thought (Swain, 1996; Liakos, 2008). At that time, education was only for people of the aristocratic class and not all people, as the society was divided classically into freemen and slaves and such practices did not allow the community to associate, sharing opinions, voicing own thoughts and points of view, as well as refuting views shared by ruling groups/authority. The selection of teachers was the first step that students could do freely among the aristocratic class. With this regard, a student was able to freely choose a competent person who was commonly referred to as "Arête", who would in turn prepare the student to have a strong foundation, which would render the student to be a fluent speaker or strong warrior. In order to serve the homeland through the long-time relation between the student and his mannerly who can freely choose the educational way, the subjects which can learn, the opinions which he dictates to his students and hearing the student's opinion in these subjects within a framework of independence in protected environment provided by the social and educational system prevailing at that time (Daoud, 2016, p. 83). It can be said that the basic idea of academic freedom was born with Socrates and the philosophical schools of ancient Athens. Devoted to pursuing the truth without regard for conformity and social pressure, Socrates chose to die by consuming hemlock rather than cease “corrupting” the youth by teaching philosophic thought (Downs, 2009, p. 6). A study by Annas (2000, p. 59) states that Socrates had for a long period been fighting for the freedom to be able to challenge the public in the agora. This was based on the belief that only the wise beings are the gods and, human beings would only be considered as wise when they are able to recognize and accept their sense of ignorance through acknowledgement how little one really knows and uncertainty of one’s beliefs. Socrates held that human beings could not enjoy ‘a real insight into the nature of reality’ because one might be wise in respect to one skills and expertise and vice versa (ignorant in areas that have little knowledge about) (Vlastos, 1985; Bett, 2010). The demise of Socrates led to the creation of an academic institution by Plato, who was a disciple of Socrates. In the memory and respect of Socrates’s ways and cultural standards, the school was dedicated and eager to prepare and train students with complete wisdom and knowledge of things around. The purpose concentrates on the quest for honesty and truth. However, the powerful influence of society did not hinder the school’s viable fulfilment of higher and feasible goals. Indeed, the preliminary assumption of an academic freedom or liberty was grounded within the quest for a reality that moved and changed humankind’s strength and power over earthly means and ways (Crabtree, 2002).

2.2.2.2: Emergence of academic freedom in Islamic civilization

Islamic civilization was a guide for other civilizations, and had become more famous among all countries, so that students and academics came from all over the world, willing to learn and gain knowledge from its great scientists like Ibn Sina, al-Khwarizmi, al-Razi, al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham, and many others (Ghazanfar, 2006; Al-Hassani, 2012). It reached that only because of the freedom and acceptation the opposition opinions which can be proved by the argument and evidence. Daoud (2016, p. 92) mentions that, the first Islamic decision related with the educational freedom, when the Prophet Mohamed, during the Islamic Call and after Battle of Badr (624 ce) and the victory of Muslims over the army of polytheists, allow that the prisoner gets his freedom by teaching Muslim boys reading and writing. That was a new way in the educational freedom, even if the teacher is polytheist. It was the first practice in the first Islamic period that allows Muslims to get the useful science and right information whatever the source and it became an Islamic tradition expressing the respect by Islam for science. Daoud notes about Dr. Abdel-Dayem that one of the good characteristics of education in the Islamic Arabic State is via the use of debate that was used widely in advanced education at that time, because of its benefits in charging minds, cogency, and getting used to self-confidence. The general education as adopted by the country provides a professor, with educational tasks and responsibilities that comprise of subject selection and libraries configuration. These practices increase a school’s educational status. In these schools, the professor (Sheikh) has the highest position on administrative organisation, and a lecturer has lower a position compared to a professor. After a period of time and in accordance to a professor’s qualifications, he/she begins to upgrade until, he reaches the position of scientists, then he will have the freedom to leave his/her professors and begin teaching without any intervention. The origins of academic freedom’s Islamic roots go back to the 8th Century AD (2nd Century AH). This began with the flourishing translation, interpretation, and commentary on the works of Greek philosophers by Arabic scholars. During the First Abbasid Dynasty (566 -653 CE), Islamic thought witnessed a scientific, architectural, cultural, and intellectual renaissance through which numerous scientific achievements were made, including translations, establishment of libraries, and research on various topics, all of which contributed to the building of the Islamic civilization, which would not have improved were it not for the strong and deep thought it carried. During this period, Baghdad was thriving capital of the Islamic boasting as a centre of intellectuals and culture development. This is credited to the Abbasid caliph enjoinment in public discussion and schooling where theology, grammar, physics, astrology, astronomy, mathematics, rhetoric, philosophy, and importantly Arabic literature were studied (Tsafrir, 1994; Tabbaa, 2001). The education system during the rule consisted of elementary schooling (held at mosques, private houses, teachers’ houses, or Maktabs). In addition to learning reading, writing, and arithmetic, senior elementary students studied Qur’anic criticism, literature, scholastic theology, jurisprudence, and apostolic tradition. Whereas, the advanced scholars studied such subjects as Medicine, Music, Astronomy, Philosophy, and Geometry (Bennison, 2014; Alavi, 1988). The advanced subjects were taught by professors of higher learning and thought to have practiced exchange of questions and answers approach during teaching (Islam, 2011; Alavi, 1988). The Islamic thought is definitely the product of a mind that knew and practiced, in word and action, the freedom of research and science (Sakran, 2001, p. 29). Kilase (2013) also mentioned that during the 9th century, academic freedom in Muslim societies was in the form of scientific research particularly after the 'House of Wisdom' establishment in Bagdad 809 CE and Al-Azhar University in Cairo 970 CE, which contained many Muslim and Christian researchers who had many inventions, like the physician al-Razi. After that, in the 10th century, many bright scholars have appeared due to the widespread of educational institutions; such as, al-Zahrawi who invented many medical innovations including surgical instruments, bones plaster, and original operative methods, as the researcher elaborated. As such, despite the studies that relate academic freedom to the European context, it has been first recognized in the Muslim world as most of the scholars elaborated. It is well known that the prosperity of the Islamic civilization originated in the teachings of Islam in the Qur'an and Sunnah, which emphasize and advocate human freedom. Accordingly, it can be said that the principles of academic freedom of thought, science, and research were one of the basics advocated by the religion of Islam, which however, cannot be attributed to the modern academic freedom.

2.2.2.3: The emergence of academic freedom and universities

This institution of higher learning was initially a medieval establishment (Hofstadter, 2011, p. 1). Later, two fundamental models surfaced, within Bologna as well as Paris (Neave, 1988). It is from European medieval higher learning institutions that academic liberty commenced like a feudal right of the lecturers to educate as well as interpret educational dogmas with authority. Liberal totalitarianism and the emergence of nation states which needed skilled and knowledgeable administrators endangered this right; however, it furthermore imposed its liberation from the inflexible restraints of conventionality during the 17th and 18th centuries (Lenhardt, 2002, p. 277). Emergence of this form of governance that demand conformity of its citizens (subjects) to authority ideology without questioning or hold opposing views contradicted the rights and freedom of speech, teaching, and expression as upheld by foundation of academic freedom. Totalitarian regimes exerted a complete social, political, and cultural control emphasizing on agreeing with the values and ideology of the leaders in the larger interest of the state regardless of scientific applicability or research data that may contradict authorities pushed agenda. In Bologna, students created their own associations. Since they were adults and commonly rich, these students were competent to administer their affairs, and both advised the teaching staff as to the topics that they wished to cover, and also organized their accommodation and paid their salaries. (Hofstadter, 2011, p.1). In Bologna, the higher learning institution composed just the students who were in charge, and the instructors were merely engaged via yearly contractual agreements (Ruegg, 2006, p. 39). Under the student governmental system, the doctors were excluded from voting in university assemblies, although they may have been allowed by invitation to attend as observers; yet, all the teachers had to obey the wishes of the student congregation (Cobban, 1975, p. 36). In comparison, the University of Paris became the master’s guild (Hofstadter, 2011, p.2). It was built by a gathering of researchers who needed to educate (Hofstadter and Metzger, 1955, p.3). Also, the Paris model was adopted by many of the emerging universities in Europe, such as Oxford. According to Baloy (1998, p. 22), the Medieval Paris University has linked academic freedom to the freedom of the teaching staff to regulate and control who should be taken into the learning institution as students, who should be appointed to work in the learning institution and how much should be paid as salaries and wages. In addition, academic freedom gives teachers the freedom to decide on the institution’s policies and curriculum regarding examinations as well as the freedom of choosing preferred courses by the students. The Paris prototype was measured based on the liberty to teach, which was then passed on to the teachers instead of the students. These institutions were exposed to external challenges by (for example) monarchs and city authorities, and they tended to react in similar ways, by moving into other townships. For example, according to Súilleabháin (2004, p. 18), Bologna was essentially held ransom, when there was a withdrawal of the university for three years from the city authority of Bologna, unless the demands of students to have a bigger control of the stadium were met. Additionally, movements such as the great dispersion that happened in 1229 causing a widespread staff migration, as well as the movement from Paris to Oxford, Angers and Orleans by the students, which brought about the freedom of scholars, that was later recognised as the university right. Similarly, the Paris model extended to Cambridge and later on to the United States, thus leading to the establishment of universities such as Yale, Harvard, and Princeton among others. While keeping a focus on the freedom of the university staff, the concept of the Humboldtian model in academic freedom displayed instances regarding the model of the University of Paris.

2.2.3: The Humboldtian Model of Universities and Academic Freedom

The Humboldtian model became a widely accepted concept and meaning of academic freedom in the 19th century Germany and it considered the “ideas of Lehrfreiheit and Lernfreiheit – freedom to teach and to learn” (Altbach, 2001, p. 206). The model emerged in 19th century founded on the Wilhelm von Humboldt’ idea of holistic combination of art of science and research to attain deeper understanding of concepts and cultural knowledge. As pointed by (Pritchard, 2004), the cultural-historical background of the model was core in answering the demand by German social class for improved general knowledge. Humboldt believed in having a creation of knowledge based primarily on research that is unbiased and independent from religious, political, economic, and ideological influences through unconditional academic freedom. In addition, The Humboldtian model was more important in northern Protestant Europe (Norway, Sweden, and Finland). Nonetheless, features of the Humboldtian model according to Karran (2009, p. 268) “are still discernible within European universities and beyond, and will be familiar to academic staff, who need no convincing of the centrality of the concept to their everyday working lives”. Academic freedom is considered to be one of the most significant missions of a university. This mission is critical in teaching as well in the research field. Academic freedom is important for the development of a higher education system. There was significant optimism for academic freedom at the start of 21st century. All the countries were successful in the achievement of a considerable level of academic freedom. It is the core mission of a university because it is important for research and teaching. According to several researchers, academic freedom is a critical aspect of a completely industrialized high education system (Karran, 2009 p.8). In early 19th century in a German university, the concept of academic freedom emerged as a concept as research and became an important part of the academic mission. Nevertheless, academic freedom covers the protection of expression on broader political as well as social issues. It is accepted in the literature that the importance of academic freedom is unquestionable. According to Schauer (2006), some academic freedom is not an arcane or anachronistic privilege but it is basic as well as a simple condition which is important for the job. According to Tsui and Rich (2002) academic freedom is the key legitimate concept for the whole university enterprise. The modern developments in academic freedom are derived from the German concept which was developed in the nineteenth century. The German concept of academic freedom was associated with the reform, which was instituted by Wilhelm von Humboldt at Berlin University. According to Zhan, Montgomery (2003) the institutional rational and the intellectual core of Humboldtian University concept is based on ideological building blocks which are the integral dimension of the German Ideology. In consequence, Wilhelm von Humboldt's own original intellectual intervention. It is necessary to address the Humboldtian ideal needs because the continuous presence of this model is in all discussion on future and mission of the research and education field. The Humboldtian model had a profound impact on the USA as an extension to the English roots particularly the first American universities (Zhan, 2004). The central part of the model is the unity of teachings and research and collaborative pursuit by both students as well as staff. According to this model, the universities are responsible for the cultivation of science as well as scholarship in broadest and deepest sense. Under this model, collaboration follows the process in which the achievement of one person helps to increase the intellectual passion and enthusiasms of others (Zhan et al., 2005, p. 167). In this process, the teachers as well as students both have their justifications for the pursuit of knowledge, which is common. Therefore, the goal of science and scholarship is to work hand in hand to synthesis the dispositions of the teacher as well as the student. Teaching helps to bring improvement in both teachers as well as students because true knowledge emerges as an interplay between experience and enthusiasm. The Humboldtian model of academic freedom resonates in the universities of European Union. According to Krull, (2005 pp.99), approximately 430 universities have signed an agreement according to which they are required to adhere to the Humboldtian principles which suggest that the teaching and research in universities are inseparable. According to Hancock (2010 p. 5) there are some variations based on the Humboldtian model, which are apparent within the universities of Europe and beyond. For example, Karan (2009, p. 268) reiterates that these variations are accustomed to the academic staff, who do not need to be convinced about the significance of the concept to their daily lives. The freedom to teach and enquire is essential to the model of the university, especially when it comes to the pursuit of truth that is based on scientific experiments, for instance in situations where the educated professionals and experts were viewed as the most suitable and acceptable experts with regard to making decisions and judgements that concern knowledge. As noted by Cain (2012, p. 12), the learning institutions were part of the State, despite which, they were managed with diminutive bureaucracy and interferences. The lecturers and professors taught students, who were assumed to be mature and who were in a position to decide on their choice of curriculum but with some minimal limitations. Additionally, it was well observed that for the models of academic freedom based on Bologna, Paris, and Berlin, the concept did not go beyond the learning institution and therefore, did not embrace any political activities.

2.2.4: British Model

The medieval university came out as an improved instruction courses at the cathedral church school in Northern Europe and Paris (Lucas, 1994, p. 41). Students were required to adhere to the normal master’s guild (Goodchild & Wechsler, 1989, p. 6). Academic places and gatherings were commonly referred to as studium meaning a place of study and sometimes discipulorum meaning ‘an association of persons dedicated to scholarly pursuits’ (Lucas, 1994, p. 41). Upon gaining more students and teachers the academic places and gathering were then referred to as universitas meaning a corporation. Between 1167 and 1168, there arose some political disputes between England and France that led to a high migration of students pursuing theology, who opted to return to England, and go to Oxford (Gwynne-Thomas, 1981, p. 65). Students and masters moved from Paris to Cambridge between the years 1209 and 1229. Presently, Cambridge is reputed to mathematical and scientific education and learning compared to the traditional custom of Oxford. Therefore, according to this model, there is no protection in the constitution, but the charter of the university which was given by the monarch, granted them autonomy. Universities also had right to set their own rules and regulations. This model is also known for forming the base on the university system in British colonial states including Canada, Australia, and New Zealand and it is undermining the removal of tenure in 1988 (Tierney & Corwin, 2007).

2.2.5: Spanish university model: Latin America model of academic freedom

The Latin American universities were majorly influenced and determined by the European models especially the Spanish university model and the French model. The first Latin American institution of higher learning and education was established in 1538 in Santa Domingo, other institutions of higher learning and education were established in 1551, in Peru and in Mexico (Hans et al., 2005). The Spanish university model, which was imported from Spain and was initially founded upon the University of Salamanca. Salamanca was modelled on the University of Bologna. The primary role of students in university governance, as occurred in the University of Bologna, was thereby exported to universities in Latin America. Latin American model is shaped throughout the 20th century in which the Latin American Model was create from the predecessors of colonies for leading the endeavor for revision for the modern state where the new universities are selected to train the secular and professional as well as civil servants. Sieniawski (2018) claims that these universities were called for the serving the educational arm of state for national unity promotion. However, the professional chairs does not serve for full time but mostly for part-time due to the noted member of liberal professions. Thus due to these reasons faculties were weak and the connections were feeble that does not grow into the typical fields of law, engineering and medicine. Study conducted by Sieniawski (2018) found that the set off the reform movement in 1918 was the most important step towards this model. The findings studied the erosion of this model and observed that the expansion of this model was funneled due to swelling of the public universities as the increment of the public universities (ibid). Furthermore, (Bernasconi, A, 2007) claims that the growth along with the non-university sector was increased due to organizational, ideological and functional levels of education. (Bernasconi, A, 2007) suggests that public universities have high impact on the model due to manifestation, quality deterioration, politicization and the decreased influenced. (Bernasconi, A, 2007) says that the Latin America mainly experienced these advents for the research activities to meet the research rhetoric for long time.

2.3: Aspects of academic freedom

Introduction

Academic freedom entails two substantive and two supportive elements. In this regard, the substantive elements include freedom to teach and undertaking of a research. On the other hand, the supportive elements include governance, and tenure. Notably, academic freedom purposes to create the impression that university members have the freedom to enquire, which is essential in a bid to achieving a particular faculty’s mission as well as the academic principles. Nonetheless, professors have a freedom of imparting and delivering research facts and information without any form intimidation, fear, or imprisonment. This is, however, not limited to ideas or views that attach political groups and authorities (Winetrout 1952, p. 5). The following are the aspects that are commonly associated with academic freedom: teaching, research, tenure, and governance.

Academic freedom for teaching

To start with, the selection of course contents and teaching can be viewed as the ability of exercising academic freedom. Through academic freedom, individual academic staff are able to determine the subject curriculum, and the manner in which it is taught. As such, they are obligated to ensure that the content of the subject and the teaching method are appropriate for, and also relevant to a given subject and level (i.e. undergraduate, masters and PhD.) Secondly, Glicksman (1986) makes it clear that individual academic staff can accurately and impartially purpose to reflect of the current thinking, research, as well as balanced opinion regarding subject disciples, which are taught in an appropriate mode to their related discipline. Thirdly, through academic freedom, individual academic staff is not able to introduce any element of either positive or negative bias, forms of distortion, deliberate omission, or any form of misinterpretation that falls within the content, delivery mode, derogatory, irrelevance, written statements, or stigmatizations, with regards to age, economic status, physical/mental disability, sexual orientation, race, religion, amongst other factors. A study by Tanash (1994) found out that most of the teaching staff in universities should ensure that through academic freedom, they are appointed via an open, transparent and also a well-documented process, solely based on their teaching, as well as research excellence, and expertise and the process should not be subjected to any form of discrimination. Moreover, the teaching staff are required by the state legislation, to secure employment from the under-represented groups in the teaching positions in the university. However, this needs to be strictly undertaken whilst adhering to the relevant legislation. Notably, such kind of temporary measures need to be discontinued whenever there is the achievement of objectives of opportunity, and treatment equality. Based on the findings by Keith (1997), he noted that in exercising academic freedom, the achievement of students are assessed and graded individually and collectively, and as such, academic staff has to ensure that the method of assessment, and that used in calculating the grades are most appropriate for a given subject, and level (either undergraduate, master, or doctoral), in which the course has bene set, and thus, comparable with others used for same qualifications in other institutions. Notably, through academic freedom, students are made aware of their grades when they commence their course. On the same note, the assessment marks, as well as grades, which are awarded often, relate to the student’s academic ability, and this is demonstrated through their performance of the task assessments without reference to any form of criteria. In order to avoid any form of implicit or explicit bias, in the grading, as well as assessment, the institution should be obligated to anonymise the processes of the grading and assessment. Furthermore, with the adherence to academic freedom, students are provided with timely and precise feedback, based on their performance in the assessment, and this enables them to have a full understanding of the rationale for their awarded grade (Gerber, 2001). In addition, academic freedom allows a national/institutional quality assurance system, whereby, the external examiners that are qualified in a given subject are allowed to evaluate the grading, and even the assessment systems, in order to ensure that they are in accordance with the subject norms (Nelson, 2011). Further, Keith (1997) notes that academic freedom is just like a freedom of speech that it given, in an instance of expert utterance in a University whilst pursuing teaching, as well as research excellence. In this regard, the faculty staff should engage in extra-mural utterances that are not even protected by academic freedom. However, they should enjoy other forms of constitutional, as well as legal freedoms. A research was carried out by Al- Zaidy (2000) made it clear that in making utterance, the faculty staff should purpose to make it explicit, to an extent that they are neither acting nor speaking for their institutions. Furthermore, the utterances made in the University or those made outside the university (outside the formal university setting) should be protected by the generic rights, which govern a free speech, and not only by academic freedom (Batchelor, 1999).

Academic freedom for research

The affiliates of the academic fraternity should have the freedom to select research subjects as well as the publications. Academic freedom further allows the members of the university guild to shape their work without interference. Academic freedom is granted to the academic staff, in order to determine the subject areas, where they can focus their research efforts, as well as the research methods that they need to adopt. In exercising this freedom, they have to ensure that their research does not contradict the international, as well as national laws, ethical principles and practices, regulations, as well as working conditions. According to Teichler et al. (2013), they note that through academic freedom the individuals employed for research are appointed through open, transparent, and well-documented selection process, based on their research excellence, experience, as well as expertise. Moreover, the national, as well as institutional systems should have a quality assurance system, which ensures that all the research applications are thoroughly scrutinized, and complaints are investigated, and expressed, prior to ethical approval, in order for the appropriate actions to be undertaken, if need be. According to Watson (2011), depending on the partners who conduct the research, or the purpose for conducting the research, no university member should be required to participate in any artistic/academic work that conflicts the individual’s conscience. Moreover, Barrow (2009) argues that the methods and even the avenues that they use in disseminating, making accessible, exploiting, and also commercialising their research findings should be looked into deeply. Through exercising the academic freedom, the academic staff should be obligated to ensure that their research outputs accurately report the reports of the research, and should not be subject to plagiarism, misleading manipulation, or forgery. Secondly, the research outputs should fully acknowledge the direct and indirect contributions of all the parties involved in the research. Finally, the outputs should not compromise the research participants’ anonymity, confidentiality, or infringe the rights agreements of the intellectual property. Zhan et al. (2005) makes it clear that the variations in the national, as well as institutional pronouncements, based on academic freedom pays verbal tribute. However, they just constitute the bare bones of the academic freedom.

TENURE

Tenure in academic literature is defined as an indefinite academic appointment, which can be terminated only for a specific cause or under certain extraordinary circumstances. These circumstances can be financial exigency or discontinuation of a program (Neave, 2002). Tenure is a principle of academic freedom which is considered to be beneficial for the society in the long term in the case when the scholars have right to hold and examine various reviews. The concept of tenure in higher education in the US originated from American Association of University Professors’ 1940-principle statement on Academic freedom and tenure. Since 1915, the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) developed a standard to guide the higher education in service of the common good (Sadler, 2011). Tenure jointly endorsed and formulated by AAUP and Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) with the endorsement of more than 250 scholars and higher education organizations. Now, it is widely adopted faculty handbook and a collective bargaining agreement among high education institutions all over the US. This statement suggests the common good significantly depends on the free search for the truth and free exposition of it. This statement also indicates that the report is essential in teaching and research field (Sadler, 2011pp.85). According to the provision of Sadler (2011), academic freedom ensures that any university system should have terms and conditions, based on every appointment supplied in form of writing to all the staff members, based on appointment. In this regard, any limitation of the academic freedom that results from the distinct nature of the university institution needs to be stated clearly (Wright, 2006). Secondly, there should be a statutory probationary employment period, in which every staff should be protected by the academic freedom, and it should have a finite length of time, excluding the individuals who cannot meet the professional standards of the requisite, in respecting their teaching, as well as research responsibilities. Thirdly, according to Sall, (2000), before the beginning of the probationary period, the tenure procedures should be stated clearly in writing, and this includes the required full explanation. For instance, the minimum requirements of lecture provisions, and even tutorials and the production of published output research. Fourthly, academic freedom ensures that there is a rigorous system of peer review that aids in assessing whether the academic staff should be granted tenure, when their probation period ends (Cole, 2005). Fifthly, Sall (2000) makes it evident that there should be a rigorous system that assesses whether tenure should be terminated, owing to the institutional financial exigency, which is part of the institutional committee, and where the tenure post is eliminated and all the positive alternatives are not filled within the agreed time period, without offering it to the initial post holder (Joyce, 2002). Sixthly, the academic freedom ensures that there is a rigorous system that assesses whether tenure should be revoked, and as such, employment is also terminated, owing to a just cause, and the seventh point is that academic freedom has the appeals system under which, unsuccessful candidates are allowed to appeal on various cases (Gerstmann, and Streb, 2006).

Shared governance

Shared governance is one of the institutional foundations for academic freedom. University governance has attracted a high criticism in the undertakings of the students in learning activities (Salter, 2002). This is because most researches have not dwelled in student participation when it comes to academic and shared governance. There is further observation that the representation of students is minimally highlighted in shared governance related debate. With reference to the OECD (2004), the report has recommended shared governance when it comes to the participation of students. This report has also provided a rationale that creates a broader inclusion strategy of the university’s lay members. Additionally, since there is no major debate, the representation of university students in shared governance needs to have a bigger consideration that is critical in terms of practice and values. Shattock (2001) has outlined a number of characteristics in university shared governance under the preserve of the high ranking academics. Nonetheless, Shattock (2001) notes that in order to guarantee academic freedom, the academic staff should be obligated to have a right to voice their opinions, regarding the policies, as well as priorities within the educational institution, without imposing threat, or any form of punitive action. Moreover, Legon (2014) also notes that they should fulfil their collegial obligations in a manner that is professional. Notably, having a determinant voice and a prominent role in an institution’s decision-making processes is vital and how it is achieved often differs with the national, as well as institutional variations in terms of decision-making structures of an institution. In addition, in order to be able to appoint, from a large number, an individual into a position of managerial authority, and also to hold them to a periodic account by the instituted democratic processes, the academic staff should be in a position to use the guideline of the state legislations, and those of the institution, in order to secure such entries into managerial positions. Moreover, they should ensure that the administrative burden does not repeat on a particular individual (s) or department (s) by purposing to limit the consecutive terms that an individual can spend in a given post. A study by Minor (2005) asserts that academic staff should be in a position to determine the individual to serve as a rector. In this regard, the rector needs to be appointed within the university, by use of a democratic process, with the support of most of the academic staff. According to Bahls (2014), there ought to be a limit in the number of conservation terms, in which an individual can serve. In which case, if the appointment is external because of the death of an internal candidate, or even a national or state legislation, then the academic staff should purpose to have a major role in the appointment determination. Furthermore, Gasman and Hilton (2010), also assert that the form of this kind of role would vary between the countries and institutions. However, they would all purpose to determine the shortlist of the candidates who vote, in choosing a specific candidate externally. Based on other governance procedures, it is evident that the primary aim of this is to encourage the idea of active participation while preventing capriciousness, as well as professional obstinacy.

2.4: ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY.

Academic freedom is as important as knowledge, is created by challenging orthodox ideas and beliefs. Academics are responsible for a large number of scientific discoveries, which means without academics it is impossible to advance knowledge (Asgedom, 2007). To permit academics to challenge current knowledge and to create some new ideas, academic freedom allows them to undertake research and to create new ideas to explore the solutions in their respective fields. They express the conclusion of their studies through publication of their findings and teaching of the students. Academic freedom is the autonomy of individuals involved in the larger academic community working in either universities or colleges. The concept of academic freedom includes performance effectiveness of the teaching functions, research, and the learning process. The right to academic freedom is enabling faculty members as well as teachers to perform and deliver as is required. It is not considered a personal privilege because scholars enjoy actions it licences (Van Ginkel, 2002). The tenure privileges of the faculty member enhance the economic security and forestall the restriction on freedom that increased from the power to dismiss. Tenure enhances the position of the faculty members who hold office during the good behaviour to protect the fearlessness and objectivity in the performance of his duties. The intellectual freedom philosophy is based on the idea of autonomy for scholar community and the freedom which guaranteed by agreement rights by the federal constitution (Pajares & Schunk, 2001). In essence, academic freedom is the face with many faces that include the freedom of teachers, professors, universities as well as students (Tierney & Corwin, 2007). During the Middle age, the European universities were considered as self-constituted scholar communities. Medieval church sponsored most these institutions if not all. Before eighteenth century, the Roman church and the Protestant successors had strong control over which the members of the universities found it important to contend (Bennich‐Björkman, 2007). Scientists outside the university were engaged in making efforts to escape from bondage rather than being free from the external control. In universities, an adequate amount of censorship brought internal controversies prevailing for a long time. In an eighteenth and nineteenth century, the political state sponsors most of the universities all over the world (Asgedom, 2007). Currently, actual and attempted political interference with public institutions continuously increase in different countries. In US, political control by the state government is in danger, which assumes reality to be in inflammatory governors (Van Ginkel, 2002). The contemporary conception of the academic freedom was expressed in the nineteenth century in Germany. The idea of the college suggests a place where scholars have a chance to follow the truth, to develop and convey information to the students, which allow them to learn to seek the truth and be dominant in society. In the age of science, knowledge increase when individuals research through questioning and experimenting on the existing knowledge and the free interplay of ideas play a significant role in purifying it (Karran, 2009). Ideally, academic freedom is the core matter of higher education, which is overlooked in almost all central university debates. It is as important as distance education, managerial responsibility and the other sayings in the history of education (Joyce, 2002). The primary work of teaching and research is impossible without academic freedom. In the 21st century, academic democracy is facing many challenges due to the impact of innovative technologies and the reformation of the out-dated universities from the services that are violating the academic freedom. Moreover, the future of college depends on good climate freedom for fostering the Academic freedom (Lieberwitz, 2002). History suggests academic freedom is not considered a fundamental precondition for the development of a real university, but it is the core value for the academia. Just like human rights, it is necessary to place academic freedom at the front of community of higher education because advanced education has a global scope and subjects that can affect one country can significantly influence other countries. Sophisticated understanding of this complex issue is important.

2.5: TERMS RELATED TO ACADEMIC FREEDOM

2.5.1: Freedom of speech

Extra mural utterance or expression involves the right to make public speech or remarks on issues and matters but are outside the competence or qualification of a professor. Barendt and Bentley (2010) note that the right associated with extramural expressions are not part of academic freedom but are rather a form of freedom of speech. There are three arguments that have been made regarding academic freedom (Barendt & Bentley, 2010). One is the academic freedom that is exercised by individual scholars to ensure that they can freely work and operate without any external or internal control and direction in relation to research and teaching. In the US, the right to freely discuss or speak on issues that are far above the primary responsibility of an individual professor is referred to as extramural speech. The second argument related to academic freedom is that universities and other institutions of higher learning can exercise institutional privileges and rights to academic freedom. Such institutional practices of academic freedom in the United Kingdom are believed to be more dominant and older compared to the professors’ individual rights. The third argument associated with academic freedom is that individual academics can make claims to ensure their involvement in the governance of the university. This is a common practice in Germany especially in the aspect of legal matters and law related to academic freedom. Otherwise stated, while the freedom of speech for academics is inexistent in numerous parts of the world, there lacks anything particularly academic regarding it. The right of saying or teaching that which one believes is presumed to be what those in the open society consider being owed to not only lawyers, politicians, journalists and parents, but also the public in general (O’Hear, 1988, p. 6). There are a number of ways through which academic freedom is similar to the freedom of speech (Downs, 2009, p. 2). According to Weinstein (2013, p. 2), academic freedom is confined to the professional practice of finding the truth in the academic world. The court's systems and the university senate approve the value of a free academic environment, which fosters the advancement of "truth" and inquiry (Downs, 2009, p. 3). In the United States, the Supreme Courts announced the commitment by the courts towards the advancement of learning systems that foster academic freedom (Weinstein, 2013, p. 3). The freedom granted to teachers and learners was a different concern about the initial amendment, which failed to condone policies and legislations that do not provide students with the freedom to express themselves while studying. Generally, academic freedom is the liberty to make inquiries on issues that help enrich knowledge and understanding. Academic freedom and freedom of expression go hand-in-hand, as they both entail that scholars and learners have the freedom to ask questions freely or teach clear ideas, including views that are controversial without the fear of regression, loss of employment, or incarceration (Owusu-Ansah 2015, p. 176). Academic freedom is a controversial subject when linked to freedom of speech. The two proofs lead to several confines, for example, they require that both students and teachers be careful not to veer off the subject with controversial issues (Lynch & Ivancheva 2015, p. 74). Conclusively, the freedom to freely express oneself and academic freedom has enables students and their teachers to exercise their rights, and to express their views and opinions without fear of control, suppression, or punishment, but such freedom is limited to the subject at hand and not misconduct or gross behaviour.

2.5.2: Institutional and Individual Autonomy

In simple terms, academic freedom is the freedom of the teacher and the researcher to conduct the research, teach, publish, and speak. It is subject to develop the norms and standards of the scholarly inquiry in search of truth and deeper understanding. Therefore, it is mandatory for the societies to respect the autonomy of the scholars who are conducting research, institutions, and teacher as well as students who came to them for becoming a knowledgeable citizen and capable leader (Henkel, 2005). The autonomy of a university can be defined as the general capacity of the university to perform its duties and responsibilities in order to achieve its mission. Additionally, it can also mean giving freedom to all people who are responsible for the execution of their jobs. It is known for providing a better framework the culture of decentralized management (Hogan & Trotter, 2013). University autonomy involves a general principle regarding the lifestyle of the university, tenured occupation and a collective governance, all of which are indistinguishably connected to and are vital for the provisions of academic freedom (Gerber, 2001). Academic freedom and university autonomy are the only ways to empower learning and acquisition of knowledge in the modern world. In most cases, the regulatory boards and authorities of higher education allow universities to operate on their own without interference after they have demonstrated compliance to the set academic rules and regulations. The primary responsibility of higher institutions is to meet the academic needs of a society (Edwards, Crosling & Lim, 2013, p. 100). It also includes the promotion of fairness and justice, especially when it comes to penetration of knowledge regardless of gender, racial, religious, and other affiliations. However, this capability would not be satisfactorily enhanced without autonomy of institutions and freedom of the learners and the teaching fraternity of entire university. Autonomy of universities should not be perceived as full independence and lack of authority from outside control. Instead, it should be viewed as a position that enables institutions of higher learning and systems of higher education to negotiate and communicate effectively with society (Monahan, 2004, p. 12). The issue of autonomy points to the internal democracy that is expected to exist in institutions of higher learning. The institutions that enjoy autonomy must also realize that they ought to accept responsibility to fulfil certain social needs. The relationship between the autonomy of institutions and their ability to take responsibility creates the need for evaluation systems to enhance relevance and quality (Thorens, 1998, p. 402). This is the only way that the social isolation of higher institutions can be avoided even with freedom of learners and autonomy of institutions. The freedom of learners and the autonomy of higher education are on gradual increase in many parts of Europe. The relationship between the state and higher learning institutions in a new context in autonomy has created the need for establishment of an interface between governments and institutions of higher learning (Shore & Taitz, 2012, p. 203). The interface between higher institutions and governments has given rise to specific technical, ethical, and fiscal problems.

2.6: ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN SAUDI ARABIA

Following discuss of the academic freedom delving in origin, evolution, and aspects of academic freedom as well as terms prominent in the academic freedom and its place in contemporary global higher education particularly European and the United Sates, this sub-section ventures into exploring the concept and its respective place in Saudi Arabia’s higher education. This involves examining historical background relating to higher education as perceived by Qur’an and Sunnah. Because Saudi Arabia is an Islamic country, based on Islam in all aspects of life, we will look at the historical background of academic freedom in the Islamic religion. As such, it is important to consider concept of academic freedom in the larger Arab and Muslim universities.

2.6.1: Historical Background Relating to Qur’an and Sunnah

Since academic freedom is based on the freedom of expressing opinions and believes, this freedom can be traced to religions. Hakim (1953) explained that since the essential mission for all religions should be the liberty of humanity, which depends on the truth, many revolutions have been made against the religions when they considered it as a restriction of human freedom and development. For the early Islam era, the liberty was a crucial requirement for humans to realize the essential value of life; “The freedom of the seeker of truth leads him to truth; if this is free pursuit is hampered; the truth is not attained” (Hakim, 1953, p.2). As such, the holy Qur’an states that “We have shown man the two ways”; (Qur’an, Al Balad, 90:10), where God declared that both evil and good paths had been determined and humans have the right to choose one of them. Moreover, the Qur’an mentions that, “There shall be no compulsion in [acceptance of] the religion. The right course has become clear from the wrong. Therefore, whoever disbelieves in Taghut and believes in Allah has grasped the most trustworthy handhold with no break in it. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing” (Qur’an, Al Baqarah, 2:256). In this sense, God also announced the human’s right to choose their beliefs due to their ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Therefore, Hakim (1953) discussed that Islam adopts freedom as a mean for the human being to be able to freely surrender to God’s will, which makes an individual a contributor in God’s universal freedom, not a slave. Moreover, according to Kamali (1993) who investigated this aspect among the Islamic holly resources (the Qur’an and the Sunnah), the Qur’anic freedom of expression does not permit the subjection thinking that violates the Islamic laws. The author added that Islamic freedom does not only include the religious liberty, but it also extends to the political freedom, which the person has the right to speak freely against the governmental authority. Nevertheless, the Qur’an warns the people from expressing ideas with the intention to collapse the social order (that is al- fitnah) which it explained as a forbidden action considered worse than murder; “and fitnah is worse than killing” (Quran, Al Baqarah, 2:191). Moreover, as well as the Qur’an encouraged the freedom of expression, it highlighted the great importance of investigation to seek the truth behind any idea. It stated that“O you who have believed, if there comes to you a disobedient one with information, investigate, lest you harm a people out of ignorance and become, over what you have done, regretful” (Qur’an, Al Hujurat, 49:6). Kamali (1993, p. 181) elaborated that the term fitnah in this meaning relates mainly to the political aspects which it describes that the “words and acts that incite dissension and controversy among people to such a degree that believers can no longer be distinguished from disbelievers.” According to the Prophet biography, Bilal was one of the Prophet’s companions who used to be a foreign slave, and despite that, he was treated better than the others were from the community and the Prophet himself (Hakim, 1953). This emphasized the adoption of individual freedom despite the human race or social position. Thus, the Prophet Mohammed stated, “There is no special merit of an Arab over a non-Arab, nor a non-Arab over an Arab, nor a white man over a black man, nor a black man over a white, except by righteousness and piety" (Laila, 1991). Moreover, Kamali (1993) added that due to the Islamic method of combining political and religious aspects, the political considerations and the freedom of expression could not be separated. In addition, Abu Zahrah (1960) elaborated that through preserving the Islamic religious principles, the Muslim community will be stabilized. The researcher also argued that the spread of wicked policies and ideas about Islam do not reflect the individual freedom of expressing beliefs, but they became an abuse that threats the balance of the community; such as, the group of Kharijites who rebelled on their ruler.

2.6.2: Academic freedom in Arab and Muslim universities

A study by Huff (2005, p. 63) shows that people in the Muslim world have a higher restriction on academic freedom compared to people in other regions of the world. Leaders from these regions retrieve power to restrict based on two large sources: the authoritarian inclination of state officials and religious sources (Huff, 2005, p. 63). In most cases, these two sources of restrictions support each other in different ways during the time of use. Muborakshoeva (2013, p. 69) confirms this view and adds that the lack of academic freedom stems, essentially, from three sources. First, the government restricts academic freedom so that nobody will criticise the affairs of the state, especially in political, economic and socio-cultural aspects. Second, there are some ideological and political parties and movements that are often disguised under the banner of religion; they suppress what is enlightening and beneficial to society. The third impediment is caused by some conservative religious scholars who do not allow government or political viewpoints. Often, because they do not have any alternative curriculum, they remain resistant to changes and reforms. Regarding authority, Al-Bel’asi (2008, p. 8) states that most Arab universities are subject, in fact, to four types of control, which are all inconsistent with the concepts of academic freedom. These four types of control can be summarized as follows:

Universities under direct political and government supervision, where the decision-making centre is outside the university;

Universities that have real academic freedom throughout its heads and directors, which are monitored politically from outside, without direct intervention. However, bureaucracy at the top of the administrative hierarchy of the university sometimes tends to control and limit the space of open academic freedom;

Universities that are subject to both types of control, from the outside and inside, through an unwritten agreement to share controlling centres; and

Universities that have an acceptable level of real academic freedom but do not use it most of the time, because the authorities still preserve the right of guardianship.#

Academic freedom has been an issue that has, for a long time, dogged many academicians involved in scientific and research institutions of learning. Nevertheless, the significance of academic freedom today displays a broader perspective. It has seen greater deliberations on such issues being undertaken in many Arab nations and international arenas in the face of reform movements that have surfaced in many of these Arab nations, coupled with the relaxation of ironclad measures put in place by security agencies operating in many of the nations in question. The sudden appearance of the 9 March Movement in Egypt, for example, advocated for the revival of the era of university autonomy and the defence of academic freedom, as well as uplifting the level and status of faculty members of universities. The subject of academic freedom rose to prominence in Saudi Arabia after persecutions were directed against several members of the academia in recent years, because of their so-called political activities. This subject of academic freedom also came to prominence in Iraq as an important and pressing matter, upon the occupation of the country by the United States forces and the removal of the Saddam Hussein regime, which saw hundreds of scientists and academicians becoming targets of violence, as well as the looting, destruction, and sabotage perpetrated in the country against cultural and scientific institutions (Madi, 2007, p. 144-145) The universities and the academicians have a global existence, but it can be said that every university has its own world. However, the universities of the Arab countries are not free from political influences. Such political influences, in governing the universities, limit the use of academic freedom. Political influence in the universities has always been considered a disastrous act for the growth of academic activities. One if such is imposed constraint and other restrictions by governing institutions and authorities for the Arab universities that make studying difficult to be implemented and become fruitful for the professors of the universities in many Arab countries (Moughrabi, 2015).

2.7: Academic freedom in Saudi Arabia

Given the importance of academic freedom, several studies on it in the Arab world have been conducted. These include a study by Tarawna (2007), who examined the level of Jordan’s academic freedom with a distinct focus on both the public and private institutions of higher learning from the faculty members’ perspective. In this study, it was clear that academic freedom was exercised only moderately. Other studies have focused on the extent to which the universities secured academic freedom. For example, Bani Awad (2002) conducted a study in Jordan which examined the level of academic freedom that Jordanian universities offered the faculty members as seen and observed by the head of departments and faculty members themselves. Other studies focused on identifying the relationship between academic freedom and other variables, such as one by Hamdan (2008), which examined the relationship between academic freedom and organizational commitment among faculty members in Palestinian universities, and the student’s study (2013) on the relationship between academic freedom and innovation, which concluded that academic freedom is being practiced moderately.

Saudi Arabia

According to Abu Hameed (p. 126), by referring to the Council for Higher Education System, it is noticed that there are no explicit and clear texts governing academic freedom in Saudi universities, though these regulations included a number of articles which included some aspects of academic freedom, such as the right to shape the internal regulations, the right to establish financial rules, the right to choose its own programs, curricula, study plans and teaching methods. However, it was not explained accurately and sufficiently. Undoubtedly, the lack of articles regulating academic freedom in Saudi universities is considered amongst the most important issues. Additionally, some states that the faculty members in Saudi Arabia do not enjoy full academic freedom in the exercise of their academic work. Instead, they are much more restricted by regulatory and administrative bodies preventing them from making certain decisions and impose conditions on permits to conduct surveys and statistical studies. These impede research in the humanities and social sciences, as they cannot afford to declare the results of their research formally, as long as these results are not consistent with the vision of the official bodies.

1. Freedom of Teaching:

Al-Zubayani (2015) conducted a deep analysis of higher education regulations to clarify the most important determinants of academic freedom. The following table illustrates the determinant of academic freedom in the field of teaching and selection of curriculum elements.

2. Freedom of Scientific Research:

In his study on the unified list of scientific research in universities and the regulations governing faculty members in Saudi universities, Al-Zubayni (2015) focused to highlight the most important determinants of academic freedom in the field of scientific research. The table highlights determinants of academic freedom in scientific research.

3. Determinants of academic freedom in the administrative and financial fields:

Al-Zubayani (2015) explained the main determinants of academic freedom in the financial and administrative fields are the following:

Conclusion

This chapter has reviewed different aspects of academic freedom such as the he aims of higher education in the Kingdom; the twelve-year system of education in Saudi Arabia and the general background of education institution in Saudi Arabia, which include both the public and private universities. With regard to international ranking standard, the chapter has explained the constant criticisms that surround the quality of education in Saudi Arabia as well as the policy guidelines and financial allocation to research and education. The chapter has further examined the general concepts of academic freedom globally and in Saudi Arabia, including the history and growth of academic freedom.

Chapter 3| Research Methods

3.0: Introduction:

This chapter of the study discusses the various methods available for a research, and justifies the choice of methods used for this research as per the aims and objectives of the study. As opined by Kumar and Phrommathed, (2005) there are various methods available for a researcher to design a study. However, the choice of methods used largely depends on the aims and objectives of the study along with the type of data (primary or secondary; qualitative or quantitative) used for the research. This research aims to investigate faculty members’ understanding of academic freedom at Saudi Arabian universities as well as explore the extent or degree to which academic freedom is available to faculty members in Saudi Arabian universities, and, investigate the barriers faculty members face with respect to academic freedom in Saudi Arabian universities. In addition to drawing the research design and method, the chapter discusses available data collection methods including research population, sampling approach, and interview methods in conducting research study and also justification for using chosen method. Subsequently, it highlights techniques employed in obtaining data aligned to achieving this research’s objectives and aims. Lastly, it highlights the procedure and expectation in conducting pilot study and ethical considerations followed while conducting this study.

3.1: Mixed Research Method

According to Creswell (2007, p.27), mixed methods in a research "is an approach of investigation that combines or associates both the qualitative and quantitative forms". Since there are two approaches with antagonistic characteristics, they combine so that one will prevail over the other while being able to complement each other in the presentation of results. This methodology offers both statistical and emotional benefits to research projects. To talk about mixed methods, it is important to remember the concepts of each of the approaches: Quantitative and Qualitative Quantitative research methods "is a means for exploring and understanding the meaning of individuals or groups that ascribe to a social or human problem" (Creswell, 2009; p. 4). For this type of research, the quantitative data are of interest. Therefore, the data collected can and should be quantified. It is best to work with large samples, since the results obtained from such samples will represent the reality regarding the particular study’s population, the quantitative approach uses statistics to describe and represent the data collected. The approach allows this study to measure number of faculty members who understand academic freedom in Saudi Arabian universities. On the other hand, qualitative research approach allows a research to delve deep into core and fundamental variable and elements informing the larger research. Based on the Silverman (2016) assertion, qualitative methods involves naturalistic inquiry aimed to give meanings, metaphors, and description seeking deeper understanding of phenomena of the research in question. In this study, qualitative method is useful in examining university staff understanding of academic freedom as well as degree to which they perceive academic freedom in Saudi Arabia universities. Qualitative research and quantitative methodologies allow the researcher to measure the orderliness and predictability of activities and decisions that occur in almost any situation (Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991). Moreover, they are interested “in understanding how people interpret their experiences, how they construct their world, and what meaning they attribute to their experiences” (Merriam, 2009, p. 5). As such, by employing mixed research approach, it enables the researcher to use components from both methods to provide an insight understanding of the problems and comprehensive investigation of the understanding and barriers of academic freedom (Creswell, 2009).

3.2: Research Design:

According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2009) a research is divided into many layers, just like an onion. For a study to successfully achieve its aims and objectives, each layer of the research has to be individually and critically examined and then applied in the study. Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, thus, proposed the concept of a Research Onion which is further discussed in Figure 1 (below), and a critical discussion follows later in this section. While authors such as Guba and Lincoln, (1994) firmly believe that the choice of methods used for a research is of secondary importance, and that there are two basic choices for a researcher, which are either a qualitative or quantitative method, Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, (2009) argue that there are deeper levels in the various layers of a researcher which needs to be peeled off one by one to fulfil the aims and objectives of a research. As seen from the figure below (Figure 11), there are six main layers to the methods available for a research, which include; Research Philosophies, Approaches, Strategies, Choices, Time Horizon of the research long with data collection techniques and procedures. Each individual layer is critically examined and discussed in this section and the choice of each layer in the chosen methods is further justified.

According to Edson, Henning and Sankaran (2016), the philosophy used in a research is based on the researcher’s own personal values and view of the world. Johnson and Clark, (2006) observe that the researcher’s assumptions guide the manner in which the research strategy and approach is chosen along with the aim of the study. Research philosophy deals with how one views knowledge and, the process used to develop that knowledge (O’Gorman, Lochrie & Watson, 2014). For example, if the aim of a research revolves around the uncovering of facts, which can be verified, the researcher is likely to adopt a philosophy, which is very different from a research which aims to investigate feelings and its affects. There are four main philosophies used in a research, which are:

Pragmatism,

Interpretivism,

Realism, and,

Positivism.

The pragmatism philosophy in a research is centred on the development of valid research questions which are answered during the study, which helps the researcher clearly understand the aims and objectives of the study, and, then, helps the researcher successfully achieve them. According to Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, (2009) definition of pragmatism: “Pragmatism argues that the most important determinant of the epistemology, ontology and axiology you adopt is the research question – one may be more appropriate than the other for answering particular questions” (p. 109). Interpretivism, as opined by O’Gorman, Lochrie and Watson, (2014) is the philosophy which is primarily based on the use of qualitative data analysed as per the interpretation and understanding of the researcher through a subjective analysis. Realism is a mix of both positivism and interpretivism philosophy. Positivism philosophy is based on quantifiable data, which is verifiable in nature, and seeks to provide credible information through a series of observed data. Thus, the positivism philosophy is based on an objective analysis of quantitative source of data. The strategy used for a research determines the structure of the study, so that the research reflects a planned structure along with the right directional approach towards achieving the aims and objectives of the study. The strategy used in a research is the way the researcher determines the sample size and means of data collection along with the method used to analyse the collected data. There are numerous strategies available to conduct a research, the most popular ones being a case study strategy, cross sectional study, survey strategy, as well as interviews. A case study strategy is normally used to build up a study involving a specific subject such as an organization (Kumar and Phrommathed, 2005) (for example: the analysis of the performance of a specific company for a period). Algozzine and Hancock, (2016) believe that the case study strategy is aimed at conducting and empirical investigation into the occurrence of data within a real-life situation through the development of various models and existing literature on the subject. Thus, a case study strategy can be used to build up existing theories on a subject, which is not the primary aim of this study; hence, the case study strategy is not relevant in this context. A survey strategy on the other hand, as opined by Taylor, Bogdan and DeVault, (2015) revolves around the collection of primary data based on the respondent’s own beliefs or experiences. This research aims to investigate the faculty members’ understanding of academic freedom at Saudi Universities as well as explore the extent or degree to which academic freedom is available to faculty members in Saudi Arabian universities, which is primarily based on the respondent’s own experiences. Thus, the survey strategy is adopted for this study as the researcher believes it will provide the most relevant and unbiased data for the study. Details of the survey are further discussed over the course of this section. According to Taylor, Bogdan and DeVault, (2015) there are two main approaches available for a research, which are known as deductive and inductive. A third approach is also used sometimes which combines both the approaches mentioned earlier and, is referred to as the abductive approach (Bryman, 2015). The deductive approach to a research involves the collection and analysis of quantitative data, which according to Jackson (2015) is data that is raw. The use of a deductive approach requires a structured data collection, which is primary in nature. Through the primary means of data collection, the researcher then explains the nature and degree of the relationship, which exists between two or more variables by using a statistical model. Thus, the deductive approach provides a theme or pattern in the collected data, which is then critically analysed through objective means. All results and findings are verifiable and have little or no scope of variation between researchers. The use of an inductive approach is extremely different from the deductive approach. The data collected for an inductive approach is generally secondary in nature and can be classified as qualitative data, which is subjected to the researcher’s subjective interpretation of the data (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). Since the data is examined using the interpretation of the researcher, the degree and nature of the results normally varies between different readers or researchers, depending on their own values and beliefs. Abductive approach is the combination of both deductive as well as inductive approach (Bryman, 2015). In this case, the researcher collects both quantitative as well as qualitative data and uses a mixed methodology to analyse each type of data.

The researcher has used quantitative data for the analysis through various statistical tests such as:

Mean: It is used to determine the average number of times a particular data has occurred within the data set.

Chi-Square Test: The Chi-Square Test is used to examine two or more independent variables within the data set in order to compare the distribution of the samples response to the dependent variable in the study.

T-Test: It is used to test how different the averages of two different independent variables differ from each other and is commonly used to compare the means of the different independent variables.

Each research is time bound, and, cannot carry on for an indefinite period. Thus, the researcher needs to select a certain time period, which can be either over a specific point in time, or, covering a period of time. There are two-time horizons available for a research, which are longitudinal; and, Cross-Sectional. A Cross-Sectional time horizon is based on a specific point in time, for example, how a subject believes is the present degree of academic freedom in KSA. A Longitudinal time horizon would imply how the subject feels about the same topic over the last few years. Both time horizons are observational in nature, implying that the researcher does not interfere with the subject’s responses, and merely collects the data without disturbing the respondents or influencing them in anyway. The researcher has adopted Cross-Sectional for this research as the survey is designed in a manner to collect data and information from the respondents. To achieve the aims and objectives of the study, the collected data needs to be presented and analysed in a logical manner as well as presented in a way that is easily understood by the reader(s). Therefore, the collected data will be represented through a frequency table showing how the respondents responded to each question in the survey, and then, the data presented graphically through various charts and diagrams. Furthermore, the percentage and means for the responses to each question of the survey will be calculated. The study used two statistical models for analysing the collected data. The analysis is done through IBM’s Statistics Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Package and the results are then critically discussed. The two statistical models used for the analysis include ‘Chi-Square Test’ and, ‘T-test’. The chi-square test is a bivariate statistical model which measures the significance in the observed differences between two groups of data (in this case two independent variables) and helps the researcher measure the categories in which the difference may occur (McHugh, 2013). The Chi-Square test is often conducted for data which can be represented through a frequency table (as in this case), and have a varied degree of responses which are unequal in nature (Patten, 2017). Since this test provides detailed information into the responses as well as the degree of variations of the responses, this test is found to be the most important analytical tool for the researcher in this study. The second statistical model used in this study is the T-test. This function examines the statistical difference between the means of two variables, and how the average response may differ between the two groups (Lowry, 2014). The t-test results are represented as a ratio, where the top part of the ratio is the mean difference of the two groups, and, the bottom part represents how the scores vary or are dispersed (Pituch, Whittaker, and Stevens, 2015).

3.3: Data Collection Methods:

Sampling is an important part of any research method, as the study cannot contain the entire population owing to time and budget constraints. Hence, researchers select a small part of the total population known as a sample to depict accurately the behaviour, thoughts, and opinions of the entire population. This survey used a purposeful random sampling. The survey was adopted from a survey made from by professor Karran and making small changes to suit this study sample in Saudi Arabia. The survey was formulated on survey monkey then translated to Arabic to be easy to the sample to understand. This survey has used a purposeful random sampling. Link of the surveys were sent out through email to faculty members of various universities in the Kingdom, and the surveys completed in time were automatically selected as part of the results and findings of the study. As the survey was sent only to faculty members in universities, it was purposeful, and yet random as there were no filters applicable on the acceptance criteria of the surveys. As discussed earlier, the data collection strategy for this study involved the survey strategy. The survey was sent to around 20,000 people who were faculty members across various universities in the Saudi Arabia Kingdom. 5726 responses were received, and the participants and setting of the survey are further discussed in the latter section of this study. The survey comprised of 57 questions, which were mostly close-ended in nature, implying that the respondents had multiple-choice options for the questions and could choose an option, which would best suit their own experience. The fifty-seven questions in the survey were divided into four sections: Section A: Academic Freedom in your Department/Faculty, Institution; Section B: Your Personal Experiences of Direct Challenges to Academic Freedom; Section C: Some Questions About You; and, finally, Section D: Your Academic Work and Responsibilities. The last two sections (Sections C and D) were based on some personal information of the respondents such as their gender, age, role in the university as well as their personal responsibilities. The first two sections were largely based on their personal experience and encounters with hindrance to academic freedom in the Kingdom (particularly Section B). Section A comprised mainly of the respondent’s experiences within their universities or affiliations. The survey was carried out through Survey Monkey with each section of the survey beginning on a new page, which the respondents could fill in at their most convenient time. The results of the survey were automatically posted in the online database for easy access to the researcher. Some of the benefits of using an online survey are discussed below. Online surveys are extremely popular these days owing to the various advantages associated with them listed below. The survey is available on Survey Monkey, one of the most popular survey websites around the world and can be accessed [https://www.surveymonkey.co.uk/r/FZLPDXR].

The advantages of using an online survey are (Taylor, Bogdan and DeVault, 2015):

The data collected using an online survey is much faster compared to traditional surveys as the data is automatically collected on a system and available to the researcher for easy access around the world.

There is little or no costs associated with online surveys, and the researcher saves money on postage and handling charges, as well as saves time in entering all the collected in a database, as the data collected through the online survey is automatically entered into a database.

As the participants enter their responses directly into the system, there is virtually no chance of errors in reading and collecting the responses compared to traditional means where there may be an oversight or typographical error by the researcher when data is entered into the database.

The results of the survey can be easily analysed and accessed anywhere in the world. Additionally, there are several online tools such as graphs and charts which can easily be prepared for the collected data.

The participants in a survey can use the online survey to complete it as per their own convenience and time rather than at a specific time in the case of telephonic or face to face surveys which must be completed at a specific time only.

The collected data can be easily exported into statistical packages such as SPSS for quick analysis of the researcher.

Online surveys can be easily customized as per the target audience, and questions can be easily replaced after a pilot study (if changes are required) compared to traditional methods which involves a time-consuming process.

3.4: Interview:

Based on the preliminary results of the questionnaire, it became clear that the research would benefit from qualitative data collection, hence viability of conduct interviews. Interviews are the widely used tool for collecting data when carrying out qualitative studies. Wethington and McDarby (2015) define interviews an oral communication that takes place between the interviewer and the interviewee. Marshall et al. (2013) asserts that in an interview, there can two or more people. The interviewer asks questions while the interviewee responds to the questions. Interviews do provide an avenue to understanding the experiences of people (Grossoehme, 2014). In other words, interviews enable researchers to explore the perspectives of the respondents. Spradley (2016) contends that in so doing, interviews grants the opportunity to get the honoured reality of culture in research. According to Frels and Onwuegbuzie (2013), interviews are premised on the fact that the viewpoints of other people in invaluable and thus cannot be assumed or taken for granted. It suffices to mention that interviews construct more than just narrative concerning the social world. Hawkins et al. (2017) reiterates that interviews are geared towards developing the primary issues for generating data that is authentic. Further, interviews provide a realistic insight into the life experiences of other people (Robinson, 2014). There are two types of interviews types; structured and semi-structured interviews (Flick, 2013). Structured interviews are considered restrictive. Semi-structured interviews are preferred because it gives a respondent to express his/her personal opinion, beliefs, experiences, attitudes, and feelings among other factors (Irvine et al., 2013). It is imperative to point out that semi-structured are very flexible and the interviewer can ask questions in a manner that does not offend the interviewee (Brinkmann, 2014). Researcher uses semi-structured interviews to elicit responses that give a holistic understanding of the respondent’s situation (Malterud et al., 2016). Furthermore, semi-structured interviews are applied in exploring areas of interest for further investigation.

The interviews conducted in Arabic languages for the Saudi Arabian group. Considering the high numbers of faculty members in Saudi Arabia, this study used the non-probability sampling, which was based on the availability and convenience of the Saudi Arabian faculty members. This research had no specific sample size, and therefore the researcher was able to collect as much information and data as possible from faculty members who willingly volunteered to participate in the study’s interview process (Kumar, 2014; Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). This type of sampling procedure is also known as self-selection sampling or the volunteer sampling according to Saunders et al. (2016). The researcher interviewed 15 interviewees comprising of 7 male and 8 female faculty members. The interviews were conducted in Arabic language by the researcher. The researcher interviewed the females participant herself but, for male participants, due to the cultural differences in Saudi Arabia and the gender separation policy, the researcher had to ask her cousin to interview male participants after training him on how to conduct the interviews. Additionally, he was given explicit instructions to contact the researcher through the mobile if any participants needed to talk to the researcher. The data collected through interviews transcribed to written text. Then the researcher read and reread all the information provided by the participants in order to obtain a general sense of the information. The researcher has gone through the computer file of transcript, comments and questions as well as developed themes and sub-themes for analysis.

3.5: Pilot Study

According to Yin (2013), a pilot study can be defined as a soft research tool for researchers and scholars to test their research method before starting the actual research. The pilot study helps the researcher discover gaps in the research methods used and, the researcher can then modify the methods used in the pilot study to ensure a robust methodology for the actual research. In this case, the researcher used a survey strategy to conduct the research, and, thus, conducted a pilot study in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to test the methodology. The pilot study was conducted in December 2015. The participants of the pilot study included two PhD students and three members of the faculty at the university. A few modifications were made to the survey used in the pilot study as per the feedback of the participants and the final copy of the survey used in this study therefore contains the modifications based on the problems identified in the pilot study. This has led to more accurate questions and better results to the best knowledge of the researcher.

3.6: Ethical Considerations of the Study

As this study has used real people as participants, it was important to maintain their privacy and adhere to the ethical requirements of conducting a social survey. The names and other personal information have not been revealed during the survey. Additionally, the necessary board approvals for conducting the survey had been obtained by the researcher on 23rd September 2015. The ethical form is attached in the Appendix. Additionally, the researcher has followed all the norms of conducting a research in line with university policies and has not collaborated with any third party for this research outside the researcher’s supervisor for this research. All results and findings are declared to be genuine and, all secondary sources of information have been duly referenced and are verifiable.

3.7: Response Rates

Out of the 20000 people who were sent the survey, responses were received from 531 people only, which is 2.7% of the expected sample. Studies by Borhan (2009) and Zain-Al-Dien (2016) used a sample size of 28 participants and 800 participants respectively. The sample size employed by Zain-Al-Dien (2016) is higher compared to this study while, the sample size used by Borhan (2009) is lower in numbers compared to this study. The variations in sample size could be attributed to cost and availability of time (McQueen & Knussen, 2002). The time allocation was estimated to take between 25 and 30 minutes to complete, and as discussed earlier, it was later discovered that some of the e-mails were sent to the wrong address, some were no longer working in Saudi, which reduced the chances of receiving more completed surveys. However, the total sample size of this survey is 531.

3.8: Conclusion

In this chapter, the study introduced the underpinning of the study and the methodological choices that guided data collection and analysis. For the purpose of this research, mixed research method was adopted to inquire into academic freedom in Saudi universities from faculty members’ perspectives and experiences. The chapter also detailed the ethical guidelines that informed data collection, analysis, and interpretation in my research. The data produced a huge range of results, which will be developed as the findings of the study in the following chapter.

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