Disaster Preparedness and Community Awareness

Introduction

Disaster preparedness is a key element in the reduction of disaster risks. Generally, disaster preparedness entails awareness on the part of the community and how ready they are to act in response to disasters. According to Adamson (2012), little has been done across the world to raise the standards of disaster preparedness. Kazmi (2017) asserts that the best way to enhance disaster preparedness is to sensitize the community and work on the preventive mechanisms. It is easier to make sound disaster management plans with details on the level of preparedness. When the level of preparedness is low, the economy and society are negatively impacted in the occurrence of a given disaster. As such, disaster preparedness is a vital factor in the race towards sustainable disaster management. As Morris (1986) puts it, disaster preparedness refers to the measures adopted to prepare for and lessen the impact of disasters. To be able to prepare well, one must be able to predict the kind and magnitude of disaster likely to occur, and then craft appropriate responses towards the impending disaster. Disaster preparedness relies heavily on how much the public is aware of the disaster in question, and the availability of supportive facilities. One of the most catastrophic disasters in the world is fire. Throughout the world, a lot of fire incidents have been reported. Fire disasters mainly lead to loss of lives and property. In addition, fire has been linked to prevalence of diseases. Fire in commercial buildings is particularly dangerous owing to the number of users who may be present when the fire breaks out. Some of the most notable fires in the recent past include: the 2010 Shanghai fire which killed 53 people, the 2010 Santiago prison fire which killed 81 inmates, the 2010 Stephen Court historic building fire in Kolkata which killed 42 people, the 2012 Comayagua prison fire which killed 361 inmates, the 2012 Dhaka fire which killed 124 people, and the 2017 Grenfell tower fire which killed 72 people, including a still born baby (Crowhurst, 2017).

According to Hirschler (1992), high-rise buildings are associated with more deaths from fire disasters than small buildings. High-rise buildings are particularly complex when it comes to fire disaster management. The complexity here entails rapid spread of fire, rapid spread of smoke, complex evacuation steps, and high possibility of accidents. For this reason, this research will focus on high-rise commercial buildings. Fire risk analysis refers to the process of figuring out and categorizing fire risks, as well as the damage such fires can cause. The goal of fire risk analysis is to assess the level of risk and therefore know what risk management measures to take. In fire risk analysis, all information available is gathered to determine the risk to the occupants of the building, the building itself and the property inside the building, and the environment. Once the risk levels are estimated, appropriate control measures are proposed to prevent the occurrence of fires (Hirschler, 1992).

Research problem

The rising incidents of fire in commercial premises led to the declaration of The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005. This required the Responsible Person of any commercial premises to carry out a fire risk assessment in order to mitigate the risk of fire. For any firm with more than 5 employees, a fire assessment report must be made, with a particular Responsible Person specified. A Responsible person refers to anyone who has some level of control over the building or some section of the building. While the owners of commercial buildings can undertake and submit the fire assessment reports, the government has been reported to be quite complacent in matters of fire. The Fire Brigade Union, in May 2019, claimed that the UK government has failed to equip fire services with the necessary equipment to fight commercial fires. Most fire services are only able to send two fire engines to fight fire in a highrise commercial building or residential apartment. Out of the 48 fire and rescue services in the UK, it is reported that only three were contacted by the Home Office to inquire about their preparedness for large fires. The Fire Brigade Union further claims that the government has not provided the planning and resources required by firefighters to prepare for infernos. As of 2019, the government’s complacency on fire safety leaves many commercial workers at risk (Kazmi, 2017). This scenario is made even worse by the lax construction standards in Britain, compared with many other developed countries. Building materials are not tested as required to ensure they have met the fire safety rules. In 2005, the British government stopped requiring certifications from inspectors to show that a particular building has complied with fire codes. The reality now is that owners of buildings have the freedom to put up structures to their own standards without any disapproval from the government. These factors make it necessary for the owners of buildings to be adequately prepared for fire incidents. This is only possible through a comprehensive fire risk assessment. When the owners and managers of buildings are sensitized on the need to assess their buildings for fire risks, incidences of fire will be greatly reduced, and if fire happens to break out, the managers will be in a position to make the right decision to see to it that the casualties are as minimal as possible (Kazmi, 2017).

Research aims and objectives

The main objective of this research is to examine the fire risk preparedness for commercial buildings in the UK. The findings from the Grenfell Tower fire will be used as the foundation for this research. This goal will be realized by considering the following specific objectives:

To analyze the building design factors that render buildings vulnerable to fire outbreaks.

To analyze the human factors that contribute to loss of lives in the event of a fire.

To assess the compliance rate of highrise commercial buildings to fire regulations.

To analyze the factors that contribute to non-compliance of provided regulations regarding fire.

Literature review

What is fire preparedness?

Fire safety preparedness is one of the four stages of fire emergency management which is aimed at mitigating fire risk. According to FEMA (2007), fire preparedness is an unceasing cycle of planning, organizing, training, equipping, exercising, assessing, and fine-tuning strategies to make sure there is proper coordination and great capability to manage fire disasters. Fire safety preparedness is an important element of environmental and occupational safety. The workplace has in the past been severely affected by incidences of fire. The large number of deaths witnessed could have been significantly reduced if there was adequate fire preparedness (Adamson, 2012). There is no worse risk in any institution or workplace than the likelihood of loss of life or fatal injuries. For this reason, all workplaces ought to avail the necessary infrastructure and procedures that will safeguard the workers against fire risks. Considering the great danger that fire outbreaks pose, it is important for all the workers and management of commercial establishments to know how to act in the event of a fire outbreak. The workplaces should also be designed in a way that allows swift escape during fire-related emergencies. The building materials used for both the structure and internal and external cladding should be ideally fire-resistant, not of the kind that supports the spread of fire (Adamson, 2012).

Elements of fire safety preparedness

There are four major elements to fire preparedness, according to Castino & Harmathy, (1982). These are i) Knowing the hazards, ii) preparing for fire incidents, iii) Staying safe during fire incidents, and iv) recovering after fire incidents. When these four are mastered, the outbreak of fires will be significantly reduced, and when a fire breaks out, the death toll and injuries will be kept to a minimal level (Castino & Harmathy, 1982).

Knowing the hazards

A fire hazard is a material, substance, or action that increases the likelihood of an accidental fire occurring. In the workplace, there are numerous fire hazards that workers get into close contact with every day. Sulik (2016) argues that the safety of workers in the event of a fire outbreak is the focal point of building design. He further praises the rapid advancement of Fire Safety Engineering, and claims that nearly all buildings and infrastructure projects apply the dictates of fire safety engineering so as to improve the safety of workers. On the contrary, Bloch, Lee, and Specia, (2017) report that hundreds of thousands of Britons work in buildings constructed with materials that have failed fire tests. As a matter of fact, a total of 199 buildings in the UK have failed fire safety testing. It is worthwhile to understand some of the fire hazards that threaten commercial buildings with fire outbreaks. In some factories, some machinery can overheat or generate too much mechanical friction or static electricity. This mainly arises out of negligence in following the recommended cleaning and maintenance procedures. When the moving parts are poorly lubricated, the mechanical contact can generate excessive heat and release flames of fire. Welding and torch cutting are other good examples. The sparks and molten material that characterize these processes have the ability to travel across the workshops for more than10 metres. Combustible dust, flammable liquids, and faulty machinery are also common causes of fire in factories. (Randall, 1871). In a 1911 copy of the New York Times, (Stein, 2011), an unnamed author heaps blames on the management of factories as a catalyst or rather magnifier of fire hazards. This was after the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire that claimed 146 lives. At the time of the incident, the doors to the stairwells and exits were locked. The factory covered the 8th, 9th and 10th floors of the Asch Building. In commercial buildings, electrical fires are also very common. Electrical hazards mostly include non-insulated electrical wires, overloaded outlets, extension cords, overloaded circuits, and overloaded circuits. Krar (2020) asserts that workplace organization is a key consideration in regards to fire hazards. He pinpoints an untidy and disorganized workplace as a chief culprit of workplace fire outbreaks. Strike First USA (2020) terms it as general negligence. The institution blames employees on failing to adhere to established procedures, despite having been sensitized on fire hazard issues.

Cigarette smoking in the workplace is another risky behavior that has cost many lives in terms of fire. The UK government reports that more than a third of fire deaths are caused by cigarette butts and cigarette lighters. When workplaces do not have specially designated smoking zones and rules, the risk of fire outbreak is increased. Strike First USA (2020) argues that fires caused by smoking show the careless side of employees. The organization claims that good common sense is enough to avoid such fires. Ahrens (2004) links illiteracy and poverty to fire outbreaks. In his report, smokers who had not graduated from high school are responsible for 38.8% of fires caused by smoking. Also, adults in households living below the poverty level tend to have higher death rates from fire. The UK law prohibits smoking in any enclosed workplace or public building (Triggle, 2017). Workers risk a fine of up to 200 GBP if caught smoking in the workplace. Following the ban of smoking in 2007, the number of smokers has significantly gone down. By 2009, about 98.2 of commercial premises were compliant with the smoking rules. It seems that smoking related fires have shifted to residential houses, at least according to London Fire Brigade (2018). However, that does not exclude smoking as a fire hazard in UK commercial buildings. Clutter has also been noted as a chief cause of fire in the workplace. Failure to consistently clean the offices leads to piling up of paperwork and dust and grease on office furniture surfaces and electrical equipment. The slightest spark can easily ignite these materials and turn into a big fire (Williamson, 1972). According to the Penn Jersey Building Services (2018), the biggest threat posed by clutter and untidy spaces in the workplace is fire. In the US, about 50% of workers admit to having a weakness of hoarding junk around their offices. Clutter can cause fire through overheating, buildup of mould, and trips and falls. Another noteworthy fire hazard is human error. Some machinery and office equipment require expert handling. When operated by a novice, there is a great likelihood of malfunction which may cause electrical short circuiting and subsequent fires (Williamson, 1972). In the words of Jeff Sampson (2020), what is referred to as human error is many times human negligence. Humans intentionally ignore dangerous situations and end up causing catastrophic fires. At this point in time, most, if not all, workers have at least some level of education regarding fire safety. Therefore, the error element is in only very few cases.

Computers are used in virtually every commercial building. They are generally considered safe and do not pose so great a fire risk. However, they should still be used with necessary precautionary measures lest they turn harmful. Computer fans that are responsible for cooling down the system may at times fail. When the system components overheat, the combustible materials lingering around the computers may burst into flames. Laptops also pose the same risk, especially when placed on soft surfaces such as sofas. Armagard (2020) reports a 2005 fire in the world’s leading computer research centre at the University of Southampton that damaged property worth 50 million GBP, and left 300 workers with no office to work from. This catastrophic fire is attributed to sparks due to a broken circuit flying into a volatile environment and igniting nearby combustibles. The type of cladding used in buildings has also been identified as a major fire risk. Cladding is used in buildings for insulation so as to boost the thermal comfort of the occupants. Cladding can also be simply used for aesthetic purposes. When the cladding is made of combustible material, such as wood, plastics or polyethylene-cored aluminium composite panels, the entire building becomes engulfed in highly combustible material which can easily spread the fire from one floor to the next, and from one room to the other (Williamson, 1972). Bloch, Lee, and Specia (2017) report that over 400 buildings in the UK are clad with aluminium composite panels. The core of the majority of these panels is made up of combustible plastic material. The majority of these buildings are located in the cities of London, Salford, and Manchester. Only a few buildings have had the aluminium composite panels replaced.

Research Methodology

This chapter details the research methodology that will be employed to attain the study objectives.

Overall analytical framework

Case studies are comprehensive investigations of a single person or entity or a group of people or entities. Case studies allow in-depth investigation of intricate issues in their real-life setting. Yin outlines three conditions that necessitate the use of the case study as a tool to achieve the objectives of a given research. The conditions are as follows:

When the research question is exploratory in nature

When the researcher has limited control over the site and participants

When the research question already exists at the present time.

Fire preparedness for commercial buildings is a current issue facing millions of workers in the numerous commercial buildings located in nearly all the major cities in the world. By using the case study as a tool of research, it will be possible to consider this real time question and give more insight on why things are the way they are. A case study also helps to analyse a given phenomena in the context in which it occurs. Fire risk preparedness is also a broad issue that involves many players, including the owners of the building, the government, the fire department, the local authorities and the occupants of a given building. It is impossible for the researcher to control all these stakeholders for the purpose of this research. The issue of fire preparedness is also exploratory in nature, in that the researcher is interested in investigating the factors that lead to non-compliance of building regulations. For these reasons, the case study stands out as the most appropriate tool in the assessment of fire risk preparedness for commercial buildings in the UK.

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Research Setting

The Grenfell Tower was particularly selected for this case study because of the inferno that consumed it on the 14th of June, 2017. Grenfell Tower is 24 stories high. It is located in North Kensington in London, England. The construction of the tower came to a close in 1974. It was part of the Lancaster West Estate. South of the building is the Grenfell Road, from which the tower got its name. The top 20 stories of Grenfell Tower had a total of 120 residential flats. Each floor had six flats. Two of these were one-bedroom units, while the remaining four were two-bedroom units. The first four stories were preserved for commercial use, with several offices and retail spaces.

Instruments for Data Collection

For the purpose of this study, two main methods will be used for data collection.

Visual Surveys

High-quality architectural renderings, structural drawings, real-life images, and site plans of the Grenfell Tower shall be obtained from several sites on the internet. These will be inspected visually to determine the design features that made it difficult to contain the spread of the fire.

Secondary sources

Scholarly reviews of the Grenfell tower fire incident shall be used to gain further insight into the human factors that led to a large number of people dying from the fire, taking into consideration that it could have been put off and the deaths and injuries avoided.

References

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Grenfell Tower tragedy echoes the public safety issues of Mid Staffs. (2017). Nursing Standard, 31(43), 3-3. doi: 10.7748/ns.31.43.3.s1

Hirschler, M. (1992). Fire hazard and fire risk assessment. Philadelphia, Pa: American Society For Testing And Materials.

Hoskins, J. (2018). Chrysotile asbestos cement and the Grenfell Tower fire. Toxicology And Applied Pharmacology, 361, 171. doi: 10.1016/j.taap.2018.04.003

Kazmi, A. (2017). A GP’s experience of the Grenfell Tower fire. BMJ, j2975. doi: 10.1136/bmj.j2975

Laidlaw, J. (1905). The protection of vertical openings and other fire hazards. Toronto: Monetary Times.

Morris, J. (1986). The library disaster preparedness handbook. Chicago: American Library Association.

Randall, G. (1871). The great fire of Chicago and its causes. Chicago.

Williamson, J. (1972). General Fire Hazards and Fire Prevention. [Place of publication not identified]: Pitman Pub.